New Media Network Communication and Internet

Question: Examine about the New Media for Network Communication and Internet. Answer: New Media The substance that is accessible in the web on request and is open from any advanced gadget from any area is named as the New Media. The New media for the most part includes the clients effectively and inputs are taken from the client to continually advance the innovation (Bagdikian, 2014). It is a lot of like web based life where the client doesn't hesitate to share their perspectives and remark on any continuous theme. A portion of the instances of new media are: wikis, internet based life, web journals, online paper locales, computer games, and so on. The new media are separated from the old media dependent on the oddity and the oldness. The new media is computerized while the old media is simple. The new media have the qualities of customization, networkable, intelligent and compressible (Madianou Miller, 2013). The New media is regularly blended in with Cyber culture yet they are various things. The digital culture is the social wonder related with arrange correspondence and web however the new media manages the standards and social articles like computerized to simple TV. The New Media utilizes computerized innovation for execution and conveyance of the media (Bagdikian, 2014). The New media is the new type of media workmanship and with the assistance of PCs there is a quicker computation and execution of the undertaking that makes the new media to speak to new procedures which beforehand doesn't exists. New media can be utilized for some, reasons like circulation of the stage, computerized information control by the product, and so forth. References Bagdikian, B. H. (2014).The new media restraining infrastructure: A totally modified and refreshed release with seven new sections. Signal Press. Madianou, M., Miller, D. (2013).Migration and new media: Transnational families and polymedia. Routledge

Understanding the Role of a Wet Nurse

Understanding the Role of a Wet Nurse A wet medical caretaker is a lactating lady who breastfeeds a kid who isn't her own. When a profoundly sorted out and generously compensated calling, wet medical attendants had everything except vanished by 1900. Prior to the creation of newborn child recipe and taking care of jugs made wet nursing for all intents and purposes out of date in Western culture, distinguished ladies regularly recruited wet medical attendants, as breastfeeding was viewed as unfashionable. The spouses of dealers, specialists, and legal counselors likewise wanted to utilize a wet medical caretaker instead of breastfeed in light of the fact that it was less expensive than employing help to maintain their husbands business or deal with a family unit. A Career for Poor Women Wet nursing was a typical profession decision for poor ladies among the lower classes. As a rule, wet attendants were required to enlist and experience clinical tests. During the Industrial Revolution, lower-pay families utilized wet medical attendants as an ever increasing number of ladies started working and couldn't breastfeed. The provincial poor-worker ladies started to accept the job of wet attendants. The Advent of Formula While creature milk was the most widely recognized hotspot for supplanting human milk, it was healthfully second rate compared to bosom milk. Advances in science empowered scientists to break down human milk and endeavors were made to make and enhance nonhuman milk with the goal that it could all the more intently inexact human milk. In 1865 scientist Justus von Liebig licensed a newborn child food comprising of cows milk, wheat and malt flour, and potassium bicarbonate. The presentation of baby equation, the more noteworthy accessibility of creature milk, and the improvement of the taking care of jug decreased the requirement for wet medical attendants all through the last 50% of the nineteenth century and well into the twentieth century. What's Different Now? After the ascent of equation and the decrease of wet nursing, the once basic help has gotten practically untouchable in a great part of the West. Be that as it may, as breastfeeding is an undeniably adequate practice again, moms of newborn children are feeling the weight indeed to nurture. In any case, lopsided maternity leave benefits around the country and the genuine challenges of breastfeeding imply that a few ladies would almost certainly profit by coming back to the well established custom of wet nursing. As The New Republic detailed in 2014, sharing nursing duties whether by officially employing a wet medical attendant or by making sense of a casual course of action among companions was appearing to be a sensible arrangement that could soothe the weight on working moms without bargaining their babies’ taking care of. The training stays dubious. Indeed, even the breastfeeding support gathering, La Leche League, was demoralizing the training in 2007. As per representative, Anna Burbidge: There are solid reservations against it, both restoratively and mentally. There are potential dangers. The greatest hazard is that of contamination being passed from the mother to the kid. Bosom milk is a living substance explicitly planned by your body for your infant, not somebody elses. In spite of these dangers, its not astounding that in this time of ridesharing and extra room sharing, milk sharing is a wonder that a few families are presently trying. A Facebook gathering and milk-sharing destinations have showed up, and as indicated by a Netmums.com piece from 2016, the training is on the ascent. Their 2016 casual survey found that one out of 25 ladies had shared their milk, and 5 percent of families had utilized milk from the more controlled wellspring of a milk bank. As the untouchable gradually lifts, this well established practice may simply make a genuine rebound. Source Stevens, Emily E., RN, FNP, WHNP, Ph.D., Thelma E. Patrick, RN, Ph.D., and Rita Pickler, RN, PNP, Ph.D. A History of Infant Feeding. The Journal of Perinatal Education at the National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Spring 2009.

Importance of Electricity Free Essays

Significance OF ELECTRICITY The best logical accomplishment of the nineteenth century is the revelation of power. The twentieth century is utilizing power so broadly that it has nearly changed the substance of the earth. â€Å"Electricityâ€carrier of light and force, devourer of reality, carrier of human discourse over land and ocean, is the best hireling of man, however it is itself obscure. We will compose a custom article test on Significance of Electricity or then again any comparative theme just for you Request Now Lenin saw Russia’s hydro-electrical possibilities. The utilization of power to industry and horticulture was Lenin’s dream. In India, we have marked our entire future on a fast development of our hydroelectric force. The advanced age is the time of hardware. The genuine object of subbing human work by mechanical work is to discover more prominent relaxation for man. Machines must be driven by regular force. What's more, the most inescapable of all wellsprings of common force is power, mechanical, hydro wind followed by gadgets now-a-days. Take a gander at life today in a cutting edge city. Power controls the clock that rouses us from bed; heats up the water that makes our tea, cooks our food on heat-verification cooking extents or cookers; works the radio and TV that reveal to us the news; rings the ringer that declares a guest; conveys our telegram to far off spots; passes on us to our office in lavish cable car vehicles and trains; takes us to our room some place in some multi-stroied expanding on lifts; power lifts; refrigerates the food to keep it totally new; lights our rooms when the sun goes down; warms it in winter and cools it in summer; to put it plainly, thoroughly takes care of our solace and comfort with the most extreme productivity at painfully inconvenient times. To create and tackle power for a huge scope implies the improvement of hardware equipped for doing as such. The different multipurpose plans, which we are running at such a substantial expense throughout the years, are for the creation of huge scope power. However, the majority of our power depended on coal: the complete yield was grievously low. Presently that such multipurpose plans as those of Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley or Hirakud have made it conceivable to furnish to even remote towns with electric powers, and help change life to the point of being indistinguishable. India’s assets for producing power are underdog to no other nation on the planet. Indeed, even some Atomic plants have creating power. Step by step instructions to refer to Importance of Electricity, Papers Significance Of Electricity Free Essays Lamp fuel oil lights and gas lights are presently relics of days gone by. We presently light our lights with power. Switch on the catch and there is the day-like light even in the darkest night. We will compose a custom exposition test on Significance Of Electricity or then again any comparable point just for you Request Now In summer seasons electric fans, cooling plants are utilized to furnish us with cool environment. In winter, warming plants are utilized to keep the room warm. Electric chimes, press and oven are things of consistently use. Individuals keep fridges in their homes to keep their food in a new condition. Without a doubt power fills in as a loyal local hireling in day by day life. We as a whole realized that trains and transports run by coal and petroleum individually. They run very quick. In any case, presently steam motors and diesel motors are being supplanted by electric motors and significant distance prepares just as nearby trains in urban areas like Mumbai and Calcutta are being controlled by electric motors. Zap of increasingly more railroad tracks is being finished. In this manner, their speed is expanded incredibly. The excursion by such trains becomes smoke free. Cable cars are utilized in huge urban communities for nearby administrations. They are likewise run by power. Along these lines, in transport it is being utilized progressively. The phone and the message are in much utilize nowadays. We would now be able to talk effectively to a companion or relative who is at a huge span from us. We can discuss our messages with the assistance of transmit and fax even to the most removed corner of our nation inside no time. For sure, numerous a business will grind to a halt without these rapid methods for correspondence. On account of power which has given us such quick methods for correspondence. The job of TV can't be over accentuated. We can observer all that is going on even on the opposite side of the globe all the while. Satellites have made this conceivable. Numerous illnesses are to-day relieved by electric treatment. Specialists won't have the option to carry on activities as their instruments and machines are worked by it. X-beam machine which empowers the specialist to snap the picture of the inside pieces of the body can be worked uniquely with its assistance. Quickly, numerous men will meet their demise a lot prior without it. This is a mechanical age. The utilization of enormous and substantial machines has expanded the creation of products complex. However, such machines work financially just with the assistance of power. In some dynamic nations, similar to Japan, electric force is utilized even in little scope and house ventures. In our own nation we discover flour plants, smashers, saw factories, and so forth working with power. The utilization of such little machines in our town has helped in improving the state of the townspeople. In this way, electric force is helping in the development of businesses. A large number of news papers, magazines and books are distributed day by day. Everybody can to-day discover a book to his decision and of an appropriate norm. The printing of such countless books and periodicals has been made conceivable by the innovation of electric print machine. Subsequently electric force has carried light to our homes as well as. All of us knows about the film and the radio, TV is another cutting edge methods for amusement. Life itself won't merit living without such methods for creation. To expand our food creation water system offices must be given. Power is being utilized in the activity of cylinder wells in the towns. Presently in huge urban communities, electric heaters are being utilized to incinerate dead bodies. Along these lines, in the excursion of life, from support to grave, we need to make its aides at each stride. We have given probably the most widely recognized employments of power. The portrayal of its utility in our day by day life is ceaseless. However, tragically in our nation its gracefully has not had the option to fulfill the need for it. Our nation is very wealthy in characteristic assets which are required for its ages. By misusing these assets a greater amount of power should be produced. The most effective method to refer to Importance Of Electricity, Papers

Top 10 Fashion Colleges

Top 10 Fashion Colleges Top 10 Fashion Colleges The following schools are some of the top choices for students hoping to make their mark in the world of fashion. Related Articles Top 10 Party Colleges Top 10 Party Colleges Philip Treacy Philip Treacy Andrà © Courrà ¨ges Andrà © Courrà ¨ges 1. Central Saint Martins London-based school Central Saint Martins has become one of the premier design schools in the world. Its long list of famous alumni include Stella McCartney, Alexander McQueen, John Galliano, Christopher Kane, Phoebe Philo, and Hussein Chalayan, just to name a few. Legendary fashion figure Louise Wilson is among its preeminent faculty, and it offers a wide variety of programs, everything form textiles, jewelry and menswear to fashion history, communication and promotion. The British government subsidizes part of the tuition so that students from a variety of backgrounds can attend, which means it is less expensive than many other well-known fashion schools, with a cost of a little more than $20,000 per year (as of 2013) for a B.A. FIT campus building 2. Fashion Institute of Technology (FIT) Arguably the best-known fashion school in the world, New York City's FIT is a haven for young designers and students in other creative fields. FIT offers both undergraduate and graduate programs, with courses of study including accessories design, fabric styling, menswear, and toy design (undergraduate) as well as fashion and textile studies and global fashion management (graduate). FIT's campus is in the artistic Chelsea neighborhood, providing an insightful daily window into the cutting-edge fashion of the city. If you are from New York State and are able to commute (a real possibility in Manhattan), its price tag is on the lower end at around $5,000 per year. Even if you can't commute, but are from New York state, you'll spend less than you would at other fashion design schools. 3. Parsons Parsons The New School for Design Nestled among the streets of Greenwich Village in Manhattan, Parsons The New School for Design has quickly gained an appreciative reputation in the fashion world for its top-notch faculty and specialty study programs. Its School of Fashion is connected with designers including Donna Karan and Marc Jacobs, and the college's dozens of faculty members have a wide variety of established backgrounds and are able to share numerous perspectives with enrolled students. Prospective students should plan on pinching their pennies for quite a while, as this school comes with a $40,000 per year price tag as of 2016. 4. Kingston University Kingston University, a London-based school, has produced such notable designers as Felipe Baptista, Glenda Bailey, and Sophie Hulme. Besides a thorough curriculum touching on every facet of design, the school has strong internship and study-abroad relationships with companies like Brooks Brothers, Banana Republic and Old Navy (Gap Inc.), Woolworths South Africa, Topshop, Topman, ASOS, Abercrombie Fitch, HM, and Zara. Kingston University has gained a reputation for placing its students in key positions in the best fashion companies. It is one of the most high-value schools, with an annual tuition below $20,000, as of 2013.

60’s in America Essay examples - 870 Words

A decade of much misfortune and prosperity is the 1960’s. If you can remember anything about it, then you were not apart of it; the 1960’s an era most popular known as the sixties. The sixties, was a time of much change. People’s way of life had completely changed at the turn of the decade. It was the first decade to be radically different, then one’s before. It is the decade to set the trends of all to come. It started a large progressive movement, it created distrust throughout the country, and finally an innovative time that set the path to the technology era. The United States, during the 1960’s was a very progressive time for our country; the way people lived there life changed dramatically and has not been the same since. The†¦show more content†¦The progressiveness of the sixties paved the way to the future of the United States. Although the progression the United States had instilled, the distrust was very prominent also. The Cold W ar is a period of much tension between the United States and Soviet Russia. The Cold War itself was not a war; during it however there was. The distrust between the nations rampage as they both knew of each others nuclear bombs. Following with the distrust of the Cold War, Soviet Russia had been sending nuclear device’s to Cuba. During this grueling time the United States had there own nuclear weaponry in Turkey; for retaliation if Cuba/Soviet Russia attacks United States Land. During this difficult time it left the tension between the two nations much higher. With the distrust between the nations, there was still a lot in our own nation; with the assassination of many political and peace figures. President John F. Kennedy was assassinated November 22, 1963. A president whose goals involved creating peace and landing on the moon; were short lived after his assassination. He created the Peace Corps and his goal of landing on the moon prevailed. As for another highly known peac e icon, Martin Luther King, Jr. was assassinated April 4, 1968. His vision of peace and civil rights were also short handed. Although our civil rights have came a long way since his assassination, without his peace movement, blacks still would be more discriminated against. AShow MoreRelatedAn Accurate Assessment of the 50s and 60s in America674 Words   |  3 Pagesinaccurately assess the 1950s and 1960s. Historians, in particular, tend to describe the 1950s as a decade of prosperity and the 1960s as one of turbulence. According to most, peace and harmony defined the 50s while violence and protest conjured the 60s. This isnt true because controversy existed in the fifties, many achievements occurred in the sixties, and both decades had its political ups and downs. With all the criticism surrounding it, the 1960s remains one of the most controversial decadesRead MoreThe Effects of The Beatles Legacy1271 Words   |  5 PagesAmerica in the 50’s and early 60’s was a co nservative country having recently been involved in World War II and the Korean war, and now facing the rising tide of communism. Americans were missing that little bit of excitement in their lives and people were very inhibited. They needed an outlet to let their suppressed feelings out. Then came four lads from England that would soon shock the world, who called themselves the Beatles. The Beatles in the 1960’s positively impacted America by changing theRead MoreThe Great Melting Pot By Malcom X936 Words   |  4 Pagescountry that accepts and respects people no matter their race and origin. But in reality, America has been struggling with racism throughout it’s history. Studies show that about half of Americans believe that racism is still a big problem in our society. But despite this, racism has improved over the years. Contemporary America is a better society in terms of discrimination than it was in the 1960’s. In the 60’s racism was so severe tha t African Americans had to face racial segregation, white supremacyRead MoreThe Invention Of The 1960 S1319 Words   |  6 PagesThe 1960’s made an huge contribution to the world today. Many significant innovations were made around the world at this time. Also, many downfalls happened for lots of countries around the world. The 1960s are known for the assassins of many important persons from different countries. All in all, from the inventions of Etch-a-sketches to the first moon landing, the 1960’s changed the lives of people worldwide. The culture before the 1960’s of course had a big impact on how people acted in theRead MoreThe 1950s : A Decade Of Prosperity, Conformity, And Consensus1470 Words   |  6 PagesKylie Suitum Hist 406 Final Paper 12/11/15 Historians tend to portray the 1950’s as a decade of prosperity, conformity, and consensus, and the 1960’s as a decade of turbulence, protest, and disillusionment. Do you agree or disagree with this view? Show evidence to support your argument. With the overwhelming amount of Levittown houses, the obsession to obtain the perfect American â€Å"ideal family† as seen on TV and the unspoken agreement to fear any and all foreign ideas and values, the 1950s wereRead MoreThe Great Depression1133 Words   |  5 Pagesimmigrants came into New York, the Puerto Ricans. For some the American dream was to come to America and start a new life, but for others already here, it was about making it big in show business. â€Å"West Side Story†, a twentieth century musical, was greatly influenced by the immigration during that time. Before West Side Story was written, there were some major events that occurred. For instance, in 1914 America entered WWI. Then in 1920, women were given the right to vote and women’s suffrage wasRead MoreThe Womens Liberation Movement1026 Words   |  4 PagesStates throughout the 60’s and 70’s carrying on to the 90’s. Without the Women’s Liberation Movement women wouldn’t have received changes in laws primarily regarding employment impacting on them moving forward in terms of equal opportunities. However there is still a there is still process to be made concerning employment and social roles for women to have equal rights as men. The Women’s Liberation Movement started in the 60’s during the second wave of feminism. Even though the 70’s were a time of changeRead MoreEasy Rider: a Pursuit of American Identity1359 Words   |  6 Pagesidentity in America, in the midst of paranoia, bigotry and violence. The story, of filmmakers Fonda/Hopper creation, centers around the self-styled, counter-cultured, neo-frontiersmen of the painfully fashionable late 60s. As for the meaning of Easy rider, Peter Fonda (Wyatt) said in an interview with Rolling Stone magazine,  ¡Ã‚ §it is a southern term for a whore ¡Ã‚ ¦s old man, not a pimp, but a dude who lives with a chick. Because he ¡Ã‚ ¦s got the easy ride. Well, that ¡Ã‚ ¦s what ¡Ã‚ ¦s happened to America, man. Liberty ¡Ã‚ ¦sRead MoreThe Help Analysis Paper1352 Words   |  6 Pagestakes place during the 1960’s in Jackson, Mississippi. This novel tells a story about the relationships between African-American maids and their white employers. During the 1960’s, not only in Mississippi but the greater part of the south, African-American women were the nannies and maids to white families for generations and dealt with racism in order to earn an income for their own families. The Help not only touches on a racist time era but a sexist one as well. In The 60’s women were to be mothersRead MoreThe Influene of World War II on the Social Norm and Art Movements of America1779 Words   |  7 Pagescontrast in two adjacent decades in history, many historians have come to conclusion that the fifties were a time of conformity, and collectedness, as well and prosperity due to the great economic output of the time. And the contrasting period of the 60’s lives up tot the nick name of the â€Å"stormy sixties† a name representative of the culture and over all attitude toward life the American dream at the time. A cloudy confusion of what was wanted and needed to be done, just a roller coaster of a decade

Socrates Vs. Plato The Essential Themes Of The Meno

There is not a great deal of context that is crucial to understanding the essential themes of the Meno, largely because the dialogue sits nearly at the beginning of western philosophy. Socrates and Plato are working not so much in the context of previous philosophies as in the context of the lack of them. Further, this is very probably one of Plato s earliest surviving dialogues, set in about 402 BCE (by extension, we might presume that it represents Socrates at a relatively early stage in his own thought). Nonetheless, in order to understand the aims and achievements of the dialogue, it helps to keep in mind some details about this lack of previous philosophies. Since neither virtue nor any other concept has yet been defined in the way†¦show more content†¦Meno readily admits to being an enthusiastic follower of Gorgias and implicitly agrees to Socrates characterization of Sophist arguments as bold, grand, and presumptuous. In this sense, Meno is something of a straw man set up by Plato to highlight the kind of philosophy Socrates wants to denounce. Meno clearly prefers the Sophist-style definition of color offered by Socrates to the plain, direct definition of shape that Socrates himself prefers. If Meno is something of a dummy for aristocratic Sophist sympathizers, Anytus is even more clearly a stand-in for the somber, unconsidered values of the Athenian political elite. An actual historical politician of the time, he s grumpy, largely closed to new ideas, and insistent on inherited, class-based customs as the vehicle for virtue--he suggests that any gentleman on the streets of Athens is a fine example of virtue. Anytus, an Athenian conservative, despises the Sophists. Like other prominent Athenians at the time, he is probably suspicious of the Sophists cleverness with words and their tendency to lead young followers away from success in worldly matters. Socrates encounters this idea that philosophy is a corrupting influence in many of his dialogues, and that perception will eventually lead to his trial and execution for corrupting the youth. Thus, Plato is all the more determined to highlight Socrates profound differences from the Sophists. We should

Mock Business Proposal free essay sample

Our services will first be introduced to Baltimore City Public schools; Specifically Fredrick Douglass High School. We have plans of further expanding into other public schools in metropolitan areas that have struggling school systems. Our curriculum will thoroughly prepare students for standardized testing which are evaluated and colleges amp; universities; specifically SAT amp; ACT testing. College Bound Prep will offer workshops where students can get help with their classes and homework. College Bound Prep will also put an emphasis on science because that is one major skill which students today lack. College Bound Prep is intended to help High School juniors and seniors, but with time it will be available for more grades. We decided to become a Non-Profit organization because the average income rate of Baltimore City households is about 30,000 or less. This will allow students whose parents wouldn’t be able to afford private tutoring sessions elsewhere to have their child stay after school and get the appropriate help. College Bound Prep will build partnerships with colleges amp; universities on the Eastern coast with the potential to expand across the states. We will work closely with school counselors amp;students to help them through the college application process, fill out government aid forms and find scholarships/grants which they may be eligible for. We will hold college tours with our partnered schools to shows students the diversity of their options and help motivate. Because we offer our services to the students free of cost we will Charge a $30fee per tour which will cover their travel expenses. We plan to host around 3 tours a semester. There are numerous other companies such as Kaplan, Newton and Frog Tutoring which offer tutoring or SAT Prep classes, many of these programs which go to onsite locations. We will use an enhanced version of the current school’s curriculum, and using student feedback we can focus on what the students need. In the State less than 28% of students are proficient in Science when compared to the rest of the world, is below standards which show the lack of science education. With the launch of a new Company we run the several Risks and but the opportunities are quite appealing. Some of the risks which our company faces are the strong opposition which we will face from our competition. Many of our competitors have been in business for several years, and are quite credible. Another problem we will face is the current budget cuts to Baltimore’s public education. Being a non-profit organization we will require government funding we run the risk of not receiving necessary funding. While analyzing our current market we realized the opportunity based on the current rise in Graduation and College application rate from the Baltimore public schools. This shows the rise and interest of students wanting to graduate and further pursue their educational careers. The city of Baltimore has set a goal of raising the graduation rate to 90% by the year 2020. College Bound Prep sees this opportunity as a chance to work closely with the Baltimore City Public School program and help reach this goal. College Bound Prep will be ran by 5 College Graduates all with their own disciplines which together will contribute our skills, time and some personal funds. To start off the staff will be made up of paid seasoned/veteran math, science, history, and English teachers who share in our ideal to help troubled schools. We will recruit College students as interns to help as assistants to the tutors. Using interns will help cut back on pay roll and these College interns will hopefully be viewed as role models and representatives of what it is to be a college student. At start up each member will contribute $5000 of their own funds to add up to $25,000, along with an additional business loan of $25,000 we will have a total of 50,000 before any funding or aide. We will pay this debt of within the first 4 years of operation. With this 50,000 we will pay payroll, purchase books and material, and cover additional cost which we will occur. Mission Statement College Bound Prep is designed to help and motivate High School students in the Baltimore City School System to become independent learners and pursue advancement in their academic careers amp; educational opportunities beyond high school. Following the beliefs of the No Child Left behind Act we want to help any student who wants to go 2 college to get there and personally guide them there. Company Our Company College Bound Prep was founded July 24th, 2011 by five people who are willing to change the educational system in the Baltimore City Public School District. Our business is designed to help and protect the educational advancements of the Baltimore City School Youth. Also, our service most importantly, will help Baltimore City Schools raise their test scores in many subject areas that show they are deficient in such as Math, reading, writing, and other areas study. On the other hand, our company is a C-Corporation that will provide many tools and skills to students in the Baltimore City area so that they may have opportunities of advancement beyond high school. Additionally, our corporation will be building partnerships with colleges within the state of Maryland and in the future attempt to expand to others on the east coast if business is very successful. Our principal office will be located at Frederick Douglass Senior High School, where we may have an agreement with the school and the Baltimore City School District Board to use classrooms or other lecture halls for our academic sessions. We will use Frederick Douglass Senior High School as our first location until we see that we are financially fit and our curriculum proves sufficient enough to expand to other schools within Baltimore City District and/or possibly obtain our own public location. Our main focus and priority is to start in a location where the school that needs the most assistance and attention. According to the Maryland State Department of Education, Frederick Douglass Senior High School is second to last in worst high schools in the state of Maryland in algebra and English. Our Corporation feels that we must begin where the majority of students are doing poorly in their test scores so that we can show the public that we are serious company promoting change in the Baltimore City Public School District. Business College Bound Prep provides many services to students in the Baltimore City area an opportunity to seek assistance from us in the college application process so that they can fully comprehend the process of applying to college. Furthermore, specifically, we will assist and guide them in the understanding of the fine print of these college applications. Also, we plan to provide Inner Baltimore City Youth and Parents an opportunity to visit colleges in the state of Maryland so that they can get some real life experience on a college campus. Our College Tours will visit a variety of schools such as Towson, University of Maryland, Morgan State University, Coppin State University, UMBC, St. Mary’s College, Salisbury University, Maryland Easter Shore, Baltimore City Community College, and The Community College of Baltimore County. College Bound Prep is at the seed stage of the business venture, having just developed idea that would attract us to have different and unique services that many other educational enhancement corporations don’t have. Recently, we have hired three student tutors from the Towson University and two students’ tutors from Morgan State University. Additionally, we have come to an agreement with Frederick Douglass Senior High School as our first location to conduct our tutoring sessions and are in the talking agreement process with Harbor City High School in the Baltimore City Public School District. Our Corporation is expected to achieve at least 3600 dollars in sales from College Tours every semester from the academic sessions being held at our school locations. We can achieve this because the funds will allow us to market our company in the Baltimore City Public School Newsletters, allow ads to be admitted in the Baltimore Sun newspapers, allow us to put flyers out on billboards at all the Public High schools in Baltimore, and maybe allow our company to have television ads on the local Baltimore stations. Also, with the funding, we may be able to expand to our own location or expand to facilities where we may be able to rent rooms that are large enough to accommodate large amounts of students. Furthermore, we feel that our company will be able to hire the best tutors in the area so that we can give a young child an equal opportunity to further advance their education. Product/Service: College Bound Prep will deliver personalized tutoring to students at Frederick Douglass Senior High School. Tutoring will cover commonly tested areas such as Math, English, and Science. Tutoring in these specific areas is set to improve the test scores with confidence and with hopes of bringing Baltimore City’s school systems higher in ranking. College Bound Prep’s smaller group size will also enhance the student’s ability to receive information better and also increase confidence and encourage students in being more proactive in the learning process. Each subject will have an individual break down in terms of the style of teaching to the students. College Bound Prep will be stepping outside of the traditional teaching style and will involve the students in hands-on and personal experience learning. Each subject would offer its own curriculum that is different from the other. Math will involve physical construction of word problems which include having the students make drawings and illustrations of what they have read to demonstrate their comprehension, hands-on activities for areas in math such as Geometry, and computer labs held for areas in math such as Algebra, graphs, and other areas that require any data input and graphical depictions. Students will be able to apply what they learned from the textbook in science by actually applying it. Science will allow students to participate in classroom labs, textbook lab work, and working on designing their own experimental projects to test their own hypothesizes. English will involve the students having required texts to read, journals to document events in their daily lives, book reports to show their understanding of the books they have read, and peer grading with any reports or presentations done to test and increase their knowledge of writing. College Bound Prep does not only offer services to high school students in need but to college students seeking teaching experience, especially Morgan State University students. Undergraduate students majoring in Business, Engineering, and other studies, more specifically Education are offered paid internships to have the opportunity to work with the youth at Frederick Douglass High school. These student interns will have the opportunity to experience a non-traditional form of teaching and apply it to their future endeavors. The interns will also be given the opportunity to develop curriculum for their students to eliminate repetition in teaching and to improve on previous and current teaching outlines. There is no doubt that College Bound Prep can improve Frederick Douglass Senior High School’s scores. To further spark the student’s interest in wanting to succeed in obtaining passing test scores, College Bound Prep will host college tours two to three times a year. These college tours will visit all colleges and universities in the state of Maryland, including community colleges in the Baltimore area. By establishing College Bound Prep’s name in most of the colleges and university, we will have personal relationships with most of the colleges and universities admissions offices. This will provide an advantage to any of the students interested in applying to the schools visited during the tour. An added incentive to students who take the tutoring sessions seriously and improve and advance in their test scores will receive scholarships. These scholarships would pertain to college acceptance students from the College Bound Prep program and would range from covering books to covering tuition between one to four years. Presently, College Bound Prep is in the introductory stage. We plan to follow our many services with extensions to our program which includes becoming more mobile in terms of expanding sessions to other high schools in the Baltimore City and County area, and even to other states. College Bound Prep will even offer possible online sessions. College Bound Prep is unique in the sense of our dedication to provide non-traditional, personalized attention and teaching and offering a variety of opportunities for the students receiving tutoring as they progress in much needed test score improvements and also to college students seeking internships for experience. Market College Bound Prep’s target market is Baltimore City Youth from 14-18, but mainly juniors and seniors in high school. We will focus on Baltimore City schools that have low test scores. Low income families with high school age students who may not be able to get the help that their children need are also part of our focus. As a tutoring company in Baltimore, we compete with a lot of other companies that have the same goals that we have. There are many other tutoring companies in the area that are trying to appeal to the same students and parents that we are trying to reach. Part of our plan is to go to open houses and back to school nights at local schools in order to advertise our services. These are places where a lot of parents will come to see how their children are doing in school and to also seek further help for them. These are our best opportunities to let these parennn ts know about the type of tutoring that we offer. Competition There are many other prominent and lesser known tutoring services in the area that we are in direct competition with. These companies include: Kaplan, Newton, Huntington, Innovational Educational Programs, Frog Tutoring and Sylvan Learning Center. We also have to compete with the after school programs that the schools implement such as sports, cheerleading, yearbook clubs, etc. The reason why we are in competition with these after school programs is because they are held at the same time that we plan to offer tutoring. If the students that need extra help in school are involved in other after school programs, it will be a challenge to get them to come to our tutoring program. One of the problems that we may encounter in our market is the fact that a lot of parents are not financially able to send their kids to tutoring. This is a very strong possibility because the students that we are trying to attract to our tutoring program come from poor backgrounds in the inner city. We can combat this by offering funding provided by the government for students that come from families that cannot afford tutoring. By doing this, we will be able to accommodate a lot more students in our program. We have implemented a lot of different services in our company that we believe will set us apart from other tutoring companies in the area. Our goal is to be able to go to the schools that the students attend to conduct the tutoring sessions. This will set us apart from other tutoring programs where the students have to go to a specified place to receive the tutoring. That can be a major problem because a lot of students don’t have transportation to get there. A lot of students have to use public transportation to get to school and it would cost them extra money to have to take public transportation to get to a tutoring site. By meeting the students at their respective schools, we eliminate this burden on the students. Another thing that College Bound Prep does that other tutoring services don’t do is, we use credible tutors, college juniors or seniors, and graduate level interns from neighboring colleges to tutor the students. This is a very smart and cost effective way to tutor the students as opposed to using retired teachers that may only be tutoring just to receive some extra money. By using college juniors and seniors seeking internships in the education field, and graduate level interns, we will be able to use people that are enthusiastic about working with students and people that are eager to do whatever is required of them. Our company also offers incentives for students that show vast improvement in their grades. These incentives include a deduction in the rate for tutoring, as well as free school supplies and girt cards for places such as Barnes amp; Noble and Chegg. com where they can get books to read as well as textbooks for their college courses in the future. Part of our tutoring program involves preparing students to take the SAT examination and taking them on college tours. There are not currently any other tutoring programs in the area that offer these services. Preparing students for college is the main way that we differ from other tutoring services in the Baltimore area. Most tutoring services focus on helping students with their students to improve their grades in their current classes, but we plan to be different by helping them in their classes now and helping them to prepare to attend college. The main focus of College Bound Prep is to prepare high school students for college. We plan to place students that are currently struggling in their classes, on the right path and encourage them to pursue higher education. By assisting students make the choice to pursue college education; this will eventually help to improve the communities. Having more educated people in any particular area will help to decrease the poverty and eventually decrease the crime rate. Risk amp; Opportunity Being that we are a new business we have to carefully weigh out our risk and opportunities. We know that in the Baltimore area there are several credible competitors such as Kaplan, Sylvan Learning Centers, and Frog Tutoring. Along with these programs universities such as John Hopkins and UMBC offer Sat Prep and tutoring for high school students. We offer a free alternative which will already be at the school ready for students to finish class. We will offer and enhanced version of the curriculum which will also focus on science. Another risk we face is the fact this year Baltimore City has cut funding to education. This limits our funding due to the fact we hope to get government and city aide to progress and grow. Thought there are budget cuts over the past four to five years the graduation rate of students in the Baltimore city school system have been on the increase. This opportunity shows us that more students are taking graduating more seriously. With this increase in graduation there has also been a rise in college applicants coming from the Baltimore area. The city of Baltimore has stated that by the year 2020 it would like to have the graduation rate to 90% for Baltimore city public schools. We intend on being the aide to help them reach that goal.

Three Tests Of Truth Essays - Theories Of Truth, Philosophical Logic

Three Tests Of Truth In a court of law expert witnesses are required to demonstrate the truth "beyond reasonable doubt". This is difficult for a 'knower', such as a historian, to be able to assert this at the witness stand. Let's say that a young couple has just been married. The young couple stays together for a couple of months before they break up. When the two individually write reports on why the divorce is necessary, the judge is confused about the disparity between them. Thus, he calls upon a historian who specializes in the history of certain marriages and divorces to act as an expert witness for this court case. The historian is given information on the case both first-hand by the husband and the wife as well as from some secondary sources. This historian's job is to use his expertise to determine the truth of what really happened that caused the divorce of the couple. First and foremost, the historian knows that he must try to get as close to the objective truth as possible; he has to select a single set of data from groups of different information to construct a single truth, or'what really happened'. Since he is dealing with a modern case, as opposed to his usual account of a past divorce case, the historian is tempted to list all the data from the primary sources. Fortunately, he remembers that listing all the different points of view is not more objective, simply because they may contradict. Regardless of the varying points of view, the past event only could have occurred in one way-that is the truth. Therefore, to say that the event transpired in many different ways that are all equally valid is no longer a search for single truth. As von Ranke said, "the historian's task is to find out how it really was." Consequently, the historian tries to 'lift' himself from the data. He also must remove his biases from the sources of the information. For instance, he cannot be biased against the husband's brother who backed into his brand-new convertible just a week ago. He must give the brother's information the same treatment because it may be valuable. After achieving this, the historian can move on to the actual selection of the data. The historian's next step is to use the correspondence test of truth by trying to find the certain data that is pretty well constant amongst all the information. This correspondence theory is the same one that is used in science, where scientists do different experiments; if their data is constant, then a scientific theory can be made about the data. For example, when scientists did experiments on the reaction between iron and oxygen, they kept on producing the same rusty coloured substance: iron oxide. Thus, they are able to conclude that iron + oxygen = iron oxide is a truth. Like chemistry, history uses correspondence between data. Presuppose that all reports of the separated couple indicate that the husband did not remember his wife's birthday and that she did not want children. What gives this data extra durability is that it was found in both the husband's and the wife's account, as well as in the secondary sources' information. Moreover, it makes indicative statements about why the divorce could have occurred. Therefore, it is possible to conclude with a measure of confidence that the statements are true beyond a reasonable doubt. Nevertheless, the historian questions his judgement and begins to think, 'Does correspondence necessarily mean that the data is true?' He immediately remembers his high school history class where he studied documents about the American Revolution written by people from the American and British sides. Although the data differed in many ways, there was a lot of consistency between the two sides. When considering the battle at Lexington Green, both sides contained consistent information: that there was a first shot, that the British shot at the Americans, and that the British killed a number of people. However, in historical information from different sources, some data may be contradictory. In this case, there may have been a multitude of American sources which said that the first shot was British while there may have been only a few British sources available, all of which stated the opposite. One could say that because there is a larger degree of correspondence that the British shot first, that is must be true. But, that may not be correct in all instances. Hence, there must be other methods of deciding what is the

Internal Business Process Perspective

Internal Business Process Perspective Introduction Duke Children’s hospital recognized the large amount of data that needed to be linked. This was done so that a true picture of the organizational performance could be accurately depicted. Secondly, key stakeholders were furnished with the relevant information so that they could make informed decisions and enhance their knowledge base.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Internal Business Process Perspective specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The risks associated with delivery of information were identified and taken into consideration when making the delivery so that there were no incidences of finger-pointing. Using this approach, each group had to focus on their performance rather than being distracted with other departments. This ensures that each staff measures their individual efforts using the available information and makes an improvement in an intelligent manner. The integration of the clinical and business aspects of health care at the hospital led to a significant improvement in the perspectives of the balanced scorecard. This led to a reduction in business operating costs and an improvement in the hospital’s net margin. Previously the hospital focused on a strategy of reducing costs by cutting back on staffs and services. With the adoption of the scorecard approach, the hospital is undertaking strategic investments to ensure that overall long-term success on all perspectives is realized. Employees welcomed the new approach as shown by the 29 percent improvement in nursing units’ productivity from 1996 to 2000. In addition, the hospital reported an increase in the staff satisfaction, morbidity and the overall health of the organization. Analysis The hospital developed the integrated scorecard in 1996. The scorecard created a single platform for the hospital’s quality clinical results and business outcomes. The scorecard approach was balanced as it re focused all hospital disciplines around a single strategic program.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More All hospital disciplines were identified based on four categories of financial, consumer, learning and development and the internal business. The hospital put focused on the increasing its productivity through the provision of the appropriate tools to increase individual worker performance. The hospital linked its mission, strategy and key performance indicators as well as initiatives by various disciplines across the organization. Secondly, the linkages forming the scorecard were aligned to its budget. Each aspect of the scorecard was assigned to a specific discipline to ensure accountability and addressed the key performance indicators (KPI), staff satisfaction and compliance with regulations (Niven, n.d.). Aligning of the performance data was done to ensure that i t gave an operational picture and the perspective of the patient process in the children’s business. This was done so that operational performance of a unit is linked to the whole performance of the patient process in the hospital. There was a routine analysis of trends in volume, staff levels and cost per patient day. The patient perspective analysis that includes revenue and operating margin and volume were studied and results provided to physicians who input their views on improvement depending on the practice pattern. Once the scorecard was functional, it was leveraged with technology. Technological improvement automated the scorecard and enabled a huge chunk of data to be meaningfully used. The advancement in technology allows for faster and accurate analysis and evaluation, which moved the hospital from a crisis intervention to a strategic solution tactic. Automation ensured that all stakeholders in any discipline had access to the information at the same time wherever they were stationed (Meliones et al. 2001).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Internal Business Process Perspective specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Conclusion The operating environment of the hospital present newer challenges, and these are opportunities the hospital to improve on its scorecard. The business strategy change in the Duke University Children’s Hospital was a welcome reprieve for staff and patients as key stakeholders. A shift from the focus on staff cutbacks to reduce costs increased the commitment of staff to the organization. Moreover, the emphasis on individual’s performance as a contribution to the overall operational performance significantly increased employee quality of work as reflected in the positive responses from patients during the evaluation period. Evaluation Duke University Hospital has performed a tremendous work of designing and operationalizing its balanced scorecard vis ible through the positive results realized. The balanced scorecard developed and used by the hospital observes key quality management concepts. It is formulated as a continuous process, measures different elements in the operation perspective and patient perspective such that all stakeholders are able to review data important to their individual performance and recommend improvements. The balanced scorecard designed by the hospital employs the innovation and care aspects of quality. It covers the management of the product, which is quality care for patients, it covers the quality of service presented by nurses and seeks to expand the hospital’s operations by targeting and increase in the patients’ volume. As a result, the strategy has demonstrated that focus on quality ultimately leads to increased productivity and profitability for the organization. Moreover, the balanced scorecard has taken care of the community as it identifies staffs and patients as key stakeholder s of the hospital’s success. To be sustainable, the hospital included regular review of the scorecard as part of the framework and includes a regular investment on the improvement of each perspective of the scorecard (CQI, n.d.). References CQI (2008) What is quality? The Chartered Quality Institute. Web.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Meliones, J. N., Ballard R., Liekweg R., and Burton W. (2001). No mission () no margin: Its that simple. Journal of Health Care Finance. 27(3): 21-30. Niven, P. (n.d.) Internal process perspective. EPM Review. Retrieved from epmreview.com/

Material prices influence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Material prices influence - Research Paper Example Question 2 a) Monthly profit position for each of L Ltd and M Ltd if the sales of L Ltd : i. at their present level Particulars M L Selling prices 9 20 Sales in litres 750000 250000 Sales in drums 30000 10000 Total sales 270000 200000 Raw materials - 9 Other cost 5 3 Total VC for a month 150000 120000 Fixed costs 60000 40000 total cost 210000 160000 Profit 60000 40000 Assumptions 1. 1 drum = 25 litres 2. Current production capacity of L ltd if 1000 kilolitres p.m 3. Current production level of L ltd is 75% 4. Production and sales are same, no stock in hand (ii) at their higher potential level indicated by the market research, subject to a cut in price of 20%. Particulars M L Selling prices 9 16 Sales in litres 750000 450000 Sales in drums 30000 18000 Total sales 270000 288000 Raw materials - 9 Other cost 5 3 Total VC for a month 150000 216000 Fixed costs 60000 40000 Total cost 210000 256000 Profit 60000 32000 b) i. Difficulties when the market prices are used as transfer price produces underthe conditions outlined in (a) (ii) above. When the market prices are used as the transfer prices, it is disadvantageous for L ltd. This is because, it is planning to reduce its selling price by 20%, thereby increasing its sales by 80%. If this reduction in selling prices happens, then the profits enjoyed by L Ltd decreases even though there is an increase in sales by 80 %. The raw material prices are same for L ltd. There is no decrease in the raw materials which is purchased from M Ltd. As the production increases for L ltd, the raw material consumption also increases and which should bring down the raw materials cost down. The raw materials cost charged by M ltd, is based on the market price and hence, it does not benefit L Ltd. (ii) Factors to be...This is because, it is planning to reduce its selling price by 20%, thereby increasing its sales by 80%. If this reduction in selling prices happens, then the profits enjoyed by L Ltd decreases even though there is an increase in sales by 80 %. The raw material prices are same for L ltd. There is no decrease in the raw materials which is purchased from M Ltd. As the production increases for L ltd, the raw material consumption also increases and which should bring down the raw materials cost down. The raw materials cost charged by M ltd, is based on the market price and hence, it does not benefit L Ltd. As an accountant, I would consider the dual approach to fix the transfer prices. M ltd is currently selling for two parties, one L Ltd and other external parties. For L Ltd, the transfer price can be based on full cost approach and for the external customers, it can be based on the market prices. The actual cost of production should be estimated, including the research and development cost and other costs that are traceable to the division. A full cost absorption approach can be adopted to overcome these kind of problems.

Food Properties Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Food Properties - Assignment Example However, even though the baking chefs love their gluten products, physicians are of the opinion that one needs to avoid gluten products. The reason being the adverse health effects the gluten has on human health. This projects aims to compare the characteristics and sensory evaluation of each bread product and discuss about the advantages and drawbacks of the final products. For the purpose of this project breads will be made using different types of flour- chestnut flour, white rice flour and wheat flour using different proportions of each in the recipes. Gluten is a protein that has a potential of causing health problems. Celiac diseases are a disease of the immune system and intake of gluten initiates an immunological response which leads to damage of the stomach lining (A.D.A.M. Medical Dictionary, 2014). Gluten is also a well known allergen (Guandalini,2007) and it has been seen that children exposed to gluten at an early end become increasingly susceptible to celiac diseases. Chestnut flour is today used as a healthier alternative to other gluten-containing flours. Chestnut flour is derived by grinding dried chestnuts. It has a grayish appearance and a sweet flavor. Chestnuts being low in both calories and fat content are used as an healthier component in many recipes. Chestnut flour is gluten-free flour which means that the breads and other products that are prepared from this flour do not rise and therefore are dislike by many. The spongy texture of bread is lost owing to the absence of gluten which is primarily responsible for making the bread rise. However, this flour has nutritional and health benefits. Firstly, being low in fat content it is much healthier than common flour. Chestnut flour addition to any flour increases fiber and ash content (Jozinovic et al,2012,p26). Chest nut flour contains a large amount of vitamins

Business Economics Essay Example for Free

Business Economics Essay Cindy wants to invest in a new business that involves the installation of solar panels. In order to make an informed decision on this business venture, she will need to review potential profit/loss in the solar panel industry by considering future prospects for this type of business. Cindy also needs to decide whether she will invest her own funds or borrow the money to start the business. The imminent growth of the solar photovoltaic (PV) industry is almost certain. When observing the rising costs of coal and natural gas prices, the decrease of PV system costs, and the government support of solar technology, the PV market looks to have a significant increase in volume over the next few years. According to SolarBuzz, a website dedicated to Solar Power and Energy, The solar PV industry has reached a critical tipping point, with end-market demand hitting record levels almost every quarter. This growth is being driven by leading module suppliers and project developers that returned to profitability during 2013, and which have now established highly-effective global sales and marketing networks.† (NPD Group, Inc., 2013) The article also states that â€Å"demand in Q1’14 will also achieve record-breaking status, as the strongest first-quarter ever seen by the PV industry.† (NPD Group, Inc., 2013) The cost of production for solar panels has decreased significantly. â€Å"The average cost for tier 1 solar photovoltaic manufacturers is expected to fall 6% during 2014, continuing the downward trend set in place since 2008, bringing the overall cost to a record low of $0.20 per watt, according to the latest research from NPD. (NPD Group, Inc., 2013) Further consumer incentives include lower utility bills, increased tax credits and higher resale values. â€Å"Homes with solar-power system using photovoltaic (PV) panels sell for an average of $24,705 more than homes without PV systems, research finds.† (Tanaka, 2014) The government supports the concept of solar power and aims to make it a major energy source. â€Å"Solar power as cheap as coal†¦ that is the holy grail of the solar power industry† (R. Glenn Hubbard, 2012) Government support includes generous subsidies to the consumer and producers of the PV industry. â€Å"Government agencies, utilities and others offer a variety of tax credits, rebates and other incentives to support energy efficiency, encourage the use of renewable energy sources, and support efforts to conserve energy and lessen pollution.† (Energy, 2014) I see four main factors influencing the price elasticity of demand: †¢Availability of close substitutes. Are there many available close substitutes for solar panels? The demand will tend to be elastic if Cindy and her customer can switch among the various types of PV’s for the same desired feature. †¢Are PV’s a necessity or a luxury? Currently, PV’s would be considered an elastic form of energy because there are other forms of electricity (coal/power plants). We once considered personal computers a luxury and they are now a necessity. Perhaps PV’s will be viewed the same way in the future. †¢How much of my income will PV’s consume? A large portion of consumer’s income equals elasticity. What portion of income can your client devote to the cost of solar panels? If it is a large share (elastic), what tradeoffs will client need to consider to make it a worthwhile purchase? †¢What is the time horizon when making decisions on PV’s? PV systems have productive life cycles of 30-50 years. (Brownson, 2014) A longer time horizon is said to be elastic. Recommendations Upon review of various criteria such as elasticity of demand, cost of production, etc, I would encourage Cindy to pursue this business venture. This sector is set to grow exponentially in the future. The fall in solar PV prices as well as other incentives will cause higher demand for  installation. This will benefit Cindy’s new business venture by bringing more installation business and lower input costs. This can be seen in the demand supply figure: It also makes good economic sense for Cindy to borrow money for her solar panel business venture as the government provides various subsidies to businesses involved in clean energy. â€Å"In total, the federal energy tax subsidies will cost more than $16 billion in 2013, up from only $5 billion in 2005.† (Bastach, 2013) Cindy can benefit from a piece of the clean energy subsidy pie. Bibliography Bastach, M. (2013, March 13). Most energy tax subsidies go toward green energy, energy efficiency. Retrieved from The Daily Caller: http://dailycaller.com/2013/03/14/cbo-most-energy-tax-subsidies-go-toward-green-energy-energy-efficiency/ Brownson, J. (2014, May 25). Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering. Retrieved from Penn State University: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/eme810/node/593 Energy, U. D. (2014, may 25). Tax Credits, Rebates, and Savings. Retrieved from Energy.gov: http://energy.gov/savings NPD Group, Inc. (2013, December). Solarbuzz. Retrieved from Solarbuzz: http://www.solarbuzz.com/news/recent-findings/strong-growth-forecast-solar-pv-industry-2014-demand-reaching-49-gw R. Glenn Hubbard, A. P. (2012). Economics. VitalSouce bookshelf version. Tanaka, S. (2014, May 22). Payback Time for Solar-Power Energy Systems. Retrieved from The Wall Street Journal: http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304198504579571960667560156?mg=reno64-wsjurl=http%3A%2F%2Fo nline.wsj.com%2Farticle%2FSB10001424052702304198504579571960667560156.html

William Faulkner :: essays research papers

William Faulkner William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha County, with Jefferson as its county seat, is both a mythical and actual place. Yoknapatawpha county is 2400 square miles in area and has a population of 15,611 persons. Jefferson has an actual jail, town square, old houses, and Old Frenchman's Place, even a railroad. Faulkner's "Yoknapatawpha County" is in reality Lafayette County, and "Jefferson" is actually Oxford. The Faulkner family lived there since before the Civil War. This is where most of his stories take place. He pondered the family history and his own personal history; and he used both in writing his stories. (American Writers; 54) Faulkner born in New Albany, Mississippi in 1897. In 1902 they moved to Oxford ("Jefferson"), the seat of the University of Mississippi. His father, Murray C. Falkner, (the u was added to the family name by the printer who set up William's first book, The Marble Faun) ran a livery stable and a hardware store. Later he became business manager of the University. Maud Butler was his mother and Murray, John, and Dean were his three brothers. (American Writers; 55a) Faulkner's great-grandfather was William C. Falkner. He was born in 1825. He was a legendary figure in Northern Mississippi. Many details of his life have shown up in Faulkner's writings. He was twice acquitted of murder charges. He was a believer in severe discipline and was a colonel of a group of raiders of the Civil War. He began as a poor youngster trying to take care of his widowed mother, but ending his career as the owner of a railroad and a member of the state legislature. He was killed by his former railroad partner shortly after he had defeated the other for a seat in the legislature. There is a statue of William C. Falkner facing his railroad today. (American Writers; 55b) J. W. T. Faulkner was a lawyer, a banker, and assistant United States attorney. He was an active member of "rise of the "rednecks"", the political movement that gave greater suffrage to tenant farmers. The people of Oxford say he had and explosive temper. (American Writers; 55c) The characters Colonel Sartoris and Bayard Sartoris portray Faulkner's great-grandfather and grandfather. These characters show up in many of his stories such as Sartoris and The Unvanquished. They are a part of the Old South legend and they play an important role in the saga of Yoknapatawpha. (American Writers; 55d) William was a poor student. He left highshool in the tenth grade to work in his grandfather's bank. He liked to read, and wrote some poetry of his own. He also tried painting. William Faulkner :: essays research papers William Faulkner William Faulkner's Yoknapatawpha County, with Jefferson as its county seat, is both a mythical and actual place. Yoknapatawpha county is 2400 square miles in area and has a population of 15,611 persons. Jefferson has an actual jail, town square, old houses, and Old Frenchman's Place, even a railroad. Faulkner's "Yoknapatawpha County" is in reality Lafayette County, and "Jefferson" is actually Oxford. The Faulkner family lived there since before the Civil War. This is where most of his stories take place. He pondered the family history and his own personal history; and he used both in writing his stories. (American Writers; 54) Faulkner born in New Albany, Mississippi in 1897. In 1902 they moved to Oxford ("Jefferson"), the seat of the University of Mississippi. His father, Murray C. Falkner, (the u was added to the family name by the printer who set up William's first book, The Marble Faun) ran a livery stable and a hardware store. Later he became business manager of the University. Maud Butler was his mother and Murray, John, and Dean were his three brothers. (American Writers; 55a) Faulkner's great-grandfather was William C. Falkner. He was born in 1825. He was a legendary figure in Northern Mississippi. Many details of his life have shown up in Faulkner's writings. He was twice acquitted of murder charges. He was a believer in severe discipline and was a colonel of a group of raiders of the Civil War. He began as a poor youngster trying to take care of his widowed mother, but ending his career as the owner of a railroad and a member of the state legislature. He was killed by his former railroad partner shortly after he had defeated the other for a seat in the legislature. There is a statue of William C. Falkner facing his railroad today. (American Writers; 55b) J. W. T. Faulkner was a lawyer, a banker, and assistant United States attorney. He was an active member of "rise of the "rednecks"", the political movement that gave greater suffrage to tenant farmers. The people of Oxford say he had and explosive temper. (American Writers; 55c) The characters Colonel Sartoris and Bayard Sartoris portray Faulkner's great-grandfather and grandfather. These characters show up in many of his stories such as Sartoris and The Unvanquished. They are a part of the Old South legend and they play an important role in the saga of Yoknapatawpha. (American Writers; 55d) William was a poor student. He left highshool in the tenth grade to work in his grandfather's bank. He liked to read, and wrote some poetry of his own. He also tried painting.

The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison

The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison JEFFREY H. REIMAN American University or the same criminal behavior, the poor are more likely to be arrested; if arrested, they are more likely to be charged; if charged, more likely to be convicted; if convicted, more likely to be sentenced to prison; and if sentenced, more likely to be given longer prison terms than members of the middle and upper classes. 1 In other words, the image of the criminal population one sees in our nation’s jails and prisons is distorted by the shape of the criminal justice system itself.It is the face of evil reflected in a carnival mirror, but it is no laughing matter. F The face in the criminal justice carnival mirror is also †¦ very frequently black face. Although blacks do not make up the majority of the inmates in our jails and prisons, they make up a proportion that far outstrips their proportion in the population. 2 Here, too, the image we see is distorted by the processes of the criminal ju stice system itself.Edwin Sutherland and Donald Cressey write in their widely used textbook Criminology that Numerous studies have shown that African-Americans are more likely to be arrested, indicted, convicted, and committed to an institution than are whites who commit the same offenses, and many other studies have shown that blacks have a poorer chance than whites to receive probation, a suspended sentence, parole, commutation of a death sentence, or pardon. 3 Curiously enough, statistics on differential treatment of races are available in greater abundance than are statistics on differential treatment of economic classes.For instance, although the FBI tabulates arrest rates by race (as well as by sex, age, and geographical area), it omits class or income. Similarly, both the President’s Crime Commission Report and Sutherland and Cressey’s Criminology have index entries for race or racial discrimination but none for class or income of offenders. It would seem that b oth independent and government data gatherers are more willing to own up to America’s racism than to its class bias. Nevertheless, it does not pay to look at these as two independent forms of bias.It is my view that, at least as far as criminal justice is concerned, racism is simply one powerful form of economic bias. I use evidence on differential treatment of blacks as evidence of differential treatment of members of the lower classes. There are five reasons: 1. First and foremost, black Americans are disproportionately poor. In 1995, while one out of every eight white Americans received income below the poverty line, three out of every ten black Americans did. The picture is even worse when we shift from income to wealth (property such as a home, land, stocks): In 1991, black households owned one-tenth the median net worth of white households. 5 Unemployment figures give a similarly dismal picture: In 1995, 4. 9 percent of white workers were unemployed and 10. 4 percent of blacks were. Among those in the crime-prone ages of 16 to 24, 15. 6 percent of white youngsters (with no college) and 34. 0 (more than one of every three) black youngsters (with no college) were jobless. 6 2.The factors most likely to keep one out of trouble with the law and out of prison, such as a suburban living room instead of a tenement alley to gamble in or legal counsel able to devote time to one’s case instead of an overburdened public defender, are the kinds of things that money can buy regardless of one’s race, creed, or national origin. For example, as we shall see, arrests of blacks for illicit drug possession or dealing have sky- Reiman, Jeffrey, THE RICH GET RICHER AND THE POOR GET PRISON: Ideology, Class and Criminal Justice, 5th Edition,  © 1998, pp. 01–148. Adapted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc. , Upper Saddle River, NJ. 1 2 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison rocketed in recent years, rising way out of proportion to drug ar rests for whites— though research shows no greater drug use among blacks than among whites. However, drug arrests are most easily made in â€Å"disorganized inner-city† areas, where drug sales are more likely to take place out of doors, and dealers are more willing to sell to strangers. Blacks are (proportionately) more likely than whites to live in such inner-city areas nd thus more likely than whites to be arrested on drug charges. 7 But one very important reason that blacks are more likely than whites to live in disorganized inner-city areas is that a greater percentage of blacks than whites are poor and unemployed. What might at first look like a straightforward racial disparity turns out to reflect economic status. 3. Blacks who travel the full route of the criminal justice system and end up in jail or prison are close in economic condition to whites who do.In 1978, 53 percent of black jail inmates had pre-arrest incomes below $3,000, compared with 44 percent of w hites. 8 1983, the median pre-arrest income of black jail inmates was $4,067 and that of white jail inmates was $6,312. About half of blacks in jail were unemployed before arrest and 44 percent of whites were. 9 In 1991, 30 percent of whites in the prison population and 38 percent of blacks reported full- or part-time employment during the month before their arrest. 10 4.Some studies suggest that race works to heighten the effects of economic condition on criminal justice outcomes, so that â€Å"being unemployed and black substantially increase[s] the chances of incarceration over those associated with being either unemployed or black. †11 This means that racism will produce a kind of selective economic bias, making a certain segment of the unemployed even more likely to end up behind bars. 5. Finally, it is my belief that the economic powers that be in America have sufficient power to end or drastically reduce racist bias in the criminal justice system.To the extent that the y allow it to exist, it is not unreasonable to assume that it furthers their economic interests. For all these reasons, racism will be treated here as either a form of economic bias or a tool that achieves the same end. In the remainder of this [selection], I show how the criminal justice system functions to weed out the wealthy (meaning both middle- and upper-class offenders) at each stage of the process and thus produces a distorted image of the crime problem. Before entering into this discussion, three points are worth noting: First, it is not my view that the poor are all innocent victims persecuted by the evil rich.The poor do commit crimes, and my own assumption is that the vast majority of the poor who are confined in our prisons are guilty of the crimes for which they were sentenced. In addition, there is good evidence that the poor do commit a greater portion of the crimes against person and property listed in the FBI Index than the middle- and upper-classes do, relative to their numbers in the national population. What I have already tried to prove is that the crimes in the FBI Index are not the only acts that threaten us nor are they the acts that threaten us the most.What I will try to prove in what follows is that the poor are arrested and punished by the criminal justice system much more frequently than their contribution to the crime problem would warrant—thus the criminals who populate our prisons as well as the public’s imagination are disproportionately poor. Second, the following discussion has been divided into three sections that correspond to the major criminal justice decision points. †¦ As always, such classifications are a bit neater than reality, and so they should not be taken as rigid compartments. Many of the distorting processes operate at all criminal justice decision points.So, for example, while I will primarily discuss the light-handed treatment of white-collar criminals in the section on charging and senten cing, it is also true that white-collar criminals are less likely to be arrested or convicted than are blue-collar criminals. The section in which a given issue is treated is a reflection of the point in the criminal justice process at which the disparities are the most striking. Suffice it to say, however, that the disparities between the treatment of the poor and the nonpoor are to be found at all points of the process.Third, it must be borne in mind that the movement from arrest to sentencing is a funnelling process, so that discrimination that occurs at any early stage shapes the population that reaches later The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 3 stages. Thus, for example, some recent studies find little economic bias in sentence length for people convicted of similar crimes. 12 When reading such studies, one should remember that the population that reaches the point of sentencing has already been subject to whatever discrimination exists at earlier stages.If, for exampl e, among people with similar offenses and records, poor people are more likely to be charged and more likely to be convicted, then even if the sentencing of convicted criminals is evenhanded, it will reproduce the discrimination that occurred before. using both official and self-reported data suggests †¦ that there is no pervasive relationship between SES [socioeconomic status] and delinquency. †15 This conclusion is echoed by Jensen and Thompson, who argue that The safest onclusion concerning class structure and delinquency is the same one that has been proposed for several decades: class, no matter how defined, contributes little to explaining variation of self-reports of common delinquency. 16 Others conclude that while lower-class individuals do commit more than their share of crime, arrest records overstate their share and understate that of the middle and upper classes. 17 Still other studies suggest that some forms of serious crime— forms usually associated with lower-class youth— show up more frequently among higher-class persons than among lower. 8 For instance, Empey and Erikson interviewed 180 white males aged 15 to 17 who were drawn from different economic strata. They found that â€Å"virtually all respondents reported having committed not one but a variety of different offenses† Although youngsters from the middle classes constituted 55 percent of the group interviewed, they admitted to 67 percent of the instances of breaking and entering, 70 percent of the instances of property destruction, and an astounding 87 percent of all armed robberies admitted to by the entire sample. 9 Williams and Gold studied a national sample of 847 males and females between the ages of 13 and 16. 20 Of these, 88 percent admitted to at least one delinquent offense. Even those who conclude â€Å"that more lower status youngsters commit delinquent acts more frequently than do higher status youngsters†21 also recognize that lower cl ass youth are significantly overrepresented in official records. Gold writes that â€Å"about five times more lowest than highest status boys appear in the official records; if records were complete and unselective, we estimate that the ratio would be closer to 1. :1. †22 The simple fact is that for the same offense, a poor person is more likely to be arrested and, if arrested charged, than a middleor upper-class person. 23 This means, first of all, that poor people are more likely to come to the attention of the police. Furthermore, even when apprehended, the police are more likely to formally charge a poor person and release a higher-class person for the same offense. Gold writes that ARREST AND CHARGING The problem with most official records of who commits crime is that they are really statistics on who gets arrested and convicted.If, as I will show, the police are more likely to arrest some people than others, these official statistics may tell us more about police than a bout criminals. In any event, they give us little reliable data about those who commit crime and do not get caught. Some social scientists, suspicious of the bias built into official records, have tried to devise other methods of determining who has committed a crime. Most often, these methods involve an interview or questionnaire in which the respondent is assured of anonymity and asked to reveal whether he or she has committed any offenses for which he or she could be arrested and convicted.Techniques to check reliability of these self-reports also have been devised however, if their reliability is still in doubt, common sense would dictate that they would understate rather than overstate the number of individuals who have committed crimes and never come to official notice. In light of this, the conclusions of these studies are rather astounding. It would seem that crime is the national pastime. The President’s Crime Commission conducted a survey of 10,000 households and di scovered that â€Å"91 percent of all Americans have violated laws that could have subjected them to a term of imprisonment at one time in their lives. 13 A number of other studies support the conclusion that serious criminal behavior is widespread among middle- and upper-class individuals, although these individuals are rarely, if ever, arrested. Some of the studies show that there are no significant differences between economic classes in the incidence of criminal behavor. 14 The authors of a recent review of literature on class and delinquency conclude that â€Å"Research published since 1978, 4 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison oys who live in poorer parts of town and are apprehended by police for delinquency are four to five times more likely to appear in some official record than boys from wealthier sections who commit the same kinds of offenses. These same data show that, at each stage in the legal process from charging a boy with an offense to some sort of dispos ition in court, boys from different socioeconomic backgrounds are treated differently, so that those eventually incarcerated in public institutions, that site of most of the research on delinquency, are selectively poorer boys. 4 From a study of self-reported delinquent behavior, Gold finds that when individuals were apprehended, â€Å"if the offender came from a higher status family, police were more likely to handle the matter themselves without referring it to the court. †25 Terence Thornberry reached a similar conclusion in his study of 3,475 delinquent boys in Philadelphia. Thornberry found that among boys arrested for equally serious offenses and who had similar prior offense records, police were more likely to refer to lower-class youths than the more affluent ones to juvenile court.The police were more likely to deal with the wealthier youngsters informally, for example, by holding them in the station house until their parents came rather than instituting formal proce dures. Of those referred to juvenile court, Thornberry found further that for equally serious offenses and with similar prior records, the poorer youngsters were more likely to be institutionalized than were the affluent ones. The wealthier youths were more likely to receive probation than the poorer ones.As might he expected, Thornberry found the same relationships when corn paring the treatment of black and white youths apprehended for equally serious offenses. 26 Recent studies continue to show similar effects. For example, Sampson found that, for the same crimes, juveniles in lower-class neighborhoods were more likely to have some police record than those in better-off neighborhoods. Again, for similar crimes, lower-class juveniles were more likely to be referred to court than better-off juveniles.If you think these differences are not so important because they are true only of young offenders, remember that this group accounts for much of the crime problem. Moreover, other stud ies not limited to the young tend to show the same economic bias. McCarthy found that, in metropolitan areas, for similar suspected crimes, unemployed people were more likely to be arrested than employed. 27 As I indicated above, racial bias is but another form in which the bias against the poor works. And blacks are more likely to be suspected or arrested than whites. A. 988 Harvard Law Review overview of studies on race and the criminal process concludes that â€Å"most studies †¦ reveal what many police officers freely admit: that police use race as an independently significant, if not determinative, factor in deciding whom to follow, detain, search, or arrest. †28 â€Å"A 1994 study of juvenile detention decisions found that African-American and Hispanic youths were more likely to be detained at each decision point, even after controlling for the influence of offense seriousness and social factors (e. g. , singleparent home).Decisions by both police and the courts t o detain a youngster were highly influenced by race. †29 The study states that, â€Å"[n]ot only were there direct effects of race, but indirectly, socioeconomic status was related to detention, thus putting youth of color again at risk for differential treatment. †30 Reporting the results of University of Missouri criminologist Kimberly Kempf’s study of juvenile justice in fourteen Pennsylvania counties, Jerome Miller says that â€Å"Black teenagers were more likely to be detained, to be handled formally, to be waived to adult court, and to be adjudicated delinquent. 31 And the greater likelihood of arrest that minorities face is matched by a greater likelihood of being charged with a serious offense. For example, Huizinga and Elliott report that: â€Å"Minorities appear to be at greater risk for being charged with more serious offenses than whites when involved in comparable levels of delinquent behavior. †32 Bear in mind that once an individual has a c riminal record, it becomes harder for that person to get employment thus increasing the likelihood of future criminal involvement and more serious criminal charges.For reasons mentioned earlier, a disproportionately large percentage of the casualties in the recent War on Drugs are poor inner-city minority males. Michael Tonry writes that, â€Å"according to National Institute on Drug Abuse (1991) surveys of Americans’ drug use, [Blacks] are not more likely than Whites ever to have used most drugs of abuse. Nonetheless, the †¦ number of drug arrests of Blacks more than doubled between 1985 and 1989, whereas White drug arrests increased only by 27 percent. †33 A study conducted by the SentencingThe Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 5 Project, based mainly on Justice Department statistics, indicates that â€Å"Blacks make up 12 percent of the United States’ population and constitute 13 percent of all monthly drug users†¦, but represent 35 percent o f those arrested for drug possession, 55 percent of those convicted of drug possession and 74 percent of those sentenced to prison for drug possession. †34 Numerous studies of police use of deadly force show that blacks are considerably more likely than whites or Hispanics to be shot by the police.For example, using data from Memphis, Tennessee, covering the years from 1969 through 1974, James Fyfe found that blacks were 10 times more likely than whites to have been shot at unsuccessfully by police, 18 times more likely to have been wounded, and 5 times more likely to have been killed. †35 A nation that has watched the brutal treatment meted out to Rodney King by California police officers will not find this surprising. Does anyone think this would have happened if King were a white man? Any number of reasons can be offered to account for the differences in police treatment of poor versus well-off citizens.Some argue that they relied that the poor have less privacy. 36 W hat others can do in their living rooms or backyards the poor do on the street. Others argue that a police officers decision to book a poor youth and release a middle-class youth reflects either the officer’s judgment that the higher-class youngster’s family will be more likely and more able to discipline him or her than the lower-class youngster’s, or differences in the degree to which poor and middle-class complainants demand arrest.Others argue that police training and police work condition police officers to be suspicious of certain kinds of people, such as lower-class youth, blacks, Mexicans, and so on,37 a thus more likely to detect their criminality. Still others hold that police mainly arrest those with the least political clout,38 those who are least able to focus public attention on police practices or bring political influence to bear, and these happen to be the members of the lowest social and economic classes. Regardless of which view one takes, and probably all have some truth in them, one conclusion is inescapable.One of the reasons the offender â€Å"at the end of the road in prison is likely to be a member of the lowest social and economic groups in the country† is that the police officers who guard the access to the road to prison make sure that more poor people make the trip than well-to-do people. Likewise for prosecutors. A recent study of prosecutors’ decisions shows that lower-class individuals are more likely to have charges pressed against them than upper-class individuals. 39 Racial discrimination also characterizes prosecutors’ decisions to charge.The Harvard Law Review overview of studies on race and the criminal process asserts, â€Å"Statistical studies indicate that prosecutors are more likely to pursue full prosecution, file more severe charges, and seek more stringent penalties in cases involving minority defendants than in cases involving nonminority defendants. †40 One study of whites, blacks, and Hispanics arrested in Los Angeles on suspicion of having committed a felony found that, among defendants with equally serious charges and prior records, 59 percent of whites had their charges dropped at the initial screening, ompared with 40 percent of blacks and 37 percent of Hispanics. 41 The weeding out of the wealthy starts at the very entrance to the criminal justice system: The decision about whom to investigate, arrest, or charge is not made simply on the basis of the offense committed or the danger posed. It is a decision distorted by a systematic economic bias that works to the disadvantage of the poor. This economic bias is a two-edged sword.Not only are the poor arrested and charged out of proportion to their numbers for the kinds of crimes poor people generally commit—burglary, robbery, assault, and so forth—but when we reach the kinds of crimes poor people almost never have the opportunity to commit, such as antitrust violations, indus trial safety violations, embezzlement, and serious tax evasion, the criminal justice system shows an increasingly benign and merciful lace. The more likely that a crime is the type committed by middle and upper class people, the less likely that it will be treated as a criminal offense.When it comes to crime in the streets, where the perpetrator is apt to be poor, he or she is even more likely to be arrested and formally charged. When it comes to crime in the suites, where the offender is apt to be affluent, the system is most likely to deal with the crime noncriminally, that is, by civil litigation or informal settlement. Where it does choose to proceed criminally, as we will see in the section on sentencing, it rarely goes beyond a slap on the wrist. Not only is the main entry to the road to prison held wide open to the poor but the access routes for the wealthy are largely sealed off.Once again, we should not be surprised at whom we find in our prisons. 6 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison CONVICTION Between arrest and imprisonment lies the crucial process that determines guilt or innocence. Studies of individuals accused of similar offenses and with similar prior records show that the poor defendant is more likely to be adjudicated guilty than is the wealthier defendant. 42 In the adjudication process the only thing that should count is whether the accused is guilty and whether the prosecution can prove it beyond a reasonable doubt.Unfortunately, at least two other factors that are irrelevant to the question of guilt or innocence significantly affect the outcome: One is the ability of the accused to be free on bail prior to trial; and the second is access to legal counsel able to devote adequate time and energy to the case. Because both bail and high-quality legal counsel cost money, it should come as no surprise that here as elsewhere the poor do poorly. Being released on bail is Important in several respects.First and foremost is that those not released on hail are kept in jail like individuals who have been found guilty. They are thus punished while they are still legally innocent. â€Å"On June 30, 1995, an estimated 44 percent of the nation’s adult jail inmates had been convicted on their current charge. An estimated 223,000 adult jail inmates were serving a sentence, awaiting sentencing, or serving time in jail [or a probation or parole violation. Between 1985 and 1995 the number of convicted inmates rose by nearly 100,000—up from 13,409.During the same period, the number of convicted jail inmates, including those on trial or awaiting arraignment or trial, doubled (from 127,059 to an estimated 284,100). †43 Beyond the obvious ugliness of punishing people before they are found guilty, confined defendants suffer from other disabilities. Specifically, they cannot actively aid in their own defense by seeking out witnesses and evidence. Several studies have shown that among defendants accused of the sam e offenses those who make bail are more likely to be acquitted than those who do not. 4 In a recent study of unemployment and punishment, Chiricos and Bales found that ‘after the effects of other factors [seriousness of crime, prior record, etc. ] were controlled, an unemployed defendant was 3. 2 times more like to be incarcerated before trial than his employed counterpart. †45 Furthermore, because the time spent in jail prior to adjudication of guilt may count as part of the sentence if one is found guilty, the accused are often placed in a ticklish position.Let us say the accused believes he or she is innocent, and let us say also that he or she has been in the slammer for two months awaiting trial. Along comes the prosecutor to offer a deal: If you plead guilty to such-and-such (usually a lesser offense than has been charged, say, possession of burglar’s tools instead of burglary), the prosecutor promises to ask the judge to sentence you to two months. In other words, plead guilty and walk out of jail today (free, but with a criminal record that will make finding a job hard and insure a stiffer sentence next ime around)—or maintain your innocence, stay in jail until trial, and then be tried for the full charge instead of the lesser offense! In fact, not only does the prosecutor threaten to prosecute for the full charge, but this is often accompanied by the implied but very real threat to press for the most severe penalty as well—for taking up the court’s time. Plea bargaining such as this is an everyday occurrence in the criminal justice system. Contrary to the Perry Mason image, the vast majority of criminal convictions in the United States are reached without a trial.It is estimated that between 70 and 95 percent of convictions are the result of a negotiated plea,46 that is, a bargain in which the accused agrees to plead guilty (usually to a lesser offense than he or she is charged with or to one offense out of many he or she is charged with) in return for an informal promise of leniency from the prosecutor with the tacit consent of the judge. If you were the jailed defendant offered a deal like this, how would you choose? Suppose you were a poor black man not likely to be able to retain F. Lee Bailey or Edward Bennett Williams for your defense.The advantages of access to adequate legal counsel during the adjudicative process are obvious but still worthy of mention. In 1963, the U. S. Supreme Court handed down the landmark Gideon v. Wainwright decision, holding that the states must provide legal counsel to the indigent in all felony cases. As a result, no person accused of a serious crime need face his or her accuser without a lawyer. However, the Supreme Court has not held that the Constitution entitles individuals to lawyers able to devote equal time and resources to their cases.Even though Gideon represents significant progress in making good on the constitutional promise of equal treatment before the law, we still are left with two transmission belts of justice: one for the poor and one for the affluent. There is an emerging body of case law on the right to effective assistance of counsel;47 however, this is yet to have any serious The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 7 impact on the assembly-line legal aid handed out to the poor.Indigent defendants, those who cannot afford to retain their own lawyers, will be defended either by a public defender or by a private attorney assigned by the court. Because the public defender is a salaried attorney with a case load much larger than that of a private criminal lawyer,48 and because court-assigned private attorneys are paid a fixed fee that is much lower than they charge their regular clients, neither is able or motivated to devote much time to the indigent defendant’s defense. Both are strongly motivated to bring their cases to a close quickly by negotiating a plea of guilty.Because the public defender works i n day-today contact with the prosecutor and the judge, the pressures on him or her to negotiate a plea as quickly as possible, instead of rocking the boat by threatening to go to trial,49 are even greater than those that work on court-assigned counsel. In an essay aptly titled â€Å"Did You Have a Lawyer When You Went to Court? No, I Had a Public Defender,† Jonathan Casper reports the perceptions of this process from the standpoint of the defendants: Most of the men spent very little time with their public defender.In the court in which they eventually plead guilty, they typically reported spending on the order of five to ten minutes with their public defender. These conversations usually took place in the bull-pen of the court house or in the hallway. The brief conversations usually did not involve much discussion of the details surrounding the alleged crime, mitigating circumstances or the defendants’ motives or backgrounds. Instead, they focused on the deal, the off er the prosecution was likely to make or had made in return for a cop out.Often the defendants reported that the first words the public defender spoke (or at least the first words the defendants recalled) were, â€Å"I can get you†¦, if you plead guilty. †50 As might be expected, with less time and fewer resources to devote to the cause, public defenders and assigned lawyers cannot devote as much time and research to preparing the crucial pretrial motions that can often lead to dismissal of charges against the accused. A recent study of 28,315 felony defendants in various county and city jurisdictions in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky shows that public defenders got cases dropped for 11. percent of their defendants, and private attorneys got dismissals for 48 percent of their defendants. As also might be expected, the overall acquittal rate for privately retained counsel is considerably better than that for public defenders. The same study shows that public defenders achieved either dismissal of charges or a finding of not guilty in 11. 4 percent of the indictments they handled, and private attorneys got their clients off the hook in 56 percent of their cases. The superior record of private attorneys held good when comparisons were made among defendants accused of similar offenses and with similar prior records. 1 The picture that emerges from federal courts is not much different. 52 The problem of adequate legal representation is particularly acute in capital cases. According to Robert Johnson, â€Å"Most attorneys in capital cases are provided by the state. Defendants, as good capitalists, routinely assume that they will get what they pay for: next to nothing. † Their perceptions, he concludes, â€Å"may not be far from right. † Indeed, Stephen Gettinger maintains that an inadequate defense was â€Å"the single outstanding characteristic† of the condemned persons he studied.The result: Capital defendants appeared in court as â€Å"creatures beyond comprehension, virtually gagged and masked in preparation for the execution chamber. †53 Writes Linda Williams in the Wall Street Journal, The popular perception is that the system guarantees a condemned person a lawyer. But most states provide counsel only for the trial and the automatic review of the sentence by the state appeals court. Indigent prisoners—a description that applies to just about everybody on death row—who seek further review must rely on the charity of a few private lawyers and on cash-starved organizations like the Southern Prisoners Defense Committee. 4 A recent Time magazine article on this topic is entitled You Don’t Always Get Perry Mason. † Says the author, â€Å"Because the majority of murder defendants are †¦ broke†¦, many of them get courtappointed lawyers who lack the resources, experience or inclination to do their utmost. †¦ Some people go to traffic court with better prepared lawyers than many murder defendants get. †55 Needless to say, the distinct legal advantages that money can buy become even more salient when 8 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison we enter the realm of corporate and other white-collar crime.Indeed, it is often precisely the time and cost involved in bringing to court a large corporation with its army of legal eagles that is offered as an excuse for the less formal and more genteel treatment accorded to corporate crooks. This excuse is, of course, not equitably distributed to all economic classes, any more than quality legal service is. This means that regardless of actual innocence or guilt, one’s chances of beating the rap increase as one’s income increases. Regardless of what fraction of crimes are committed by the poor, the criminal justice system is distorted so that an even reater fraction of those convicted will be poor. And with conviction comes sentencing. rob a bank of a thousand dollars with a st ickup note, than a smooth talking S&L executive who steals a million dollars with a fraudulent note. Later in the hearing, Chairman Annunzio questioned the administration’s representative: You cited, Mr. Dennis, several examples in your testimony of successful convictions with stiff sentences, but the average sentence so far is actually about 2 years, compared to an average sentence of about 9 years for bank robbery.Why do we throw the book at people who rob a bank in broad daylight but we coddle people who †¦ rob the bank secretly? 56 The simple fact is that the criminal justice system reserves its harshest penalties for its lower-class clients and puts on kid gloves when confronted with a better class of crook. We will come back to the soft treatment of the S&L crooks shortly. For the moment, note that the tendency to treat higher-class criminals more leniently than lower-class criminals has been with us for a long time. In 1972, the New York Times did a study on sente ncing in state and federal courts.The Times stated that â€Å"crimes that tend to be committed by the poor get tougher sentences than those committed by the well-to-do,† that federal â€Å"defendants who could not afford private counsel were sentenced nearly twice as severely as defendants with private or no counsel,† and that a â€Å"study by the Vera Institute of Justice of courts in the Bronx indicates a similar pattern in the state courts. †57 More recently, D’Alessio and Stolzenberg studied a random sample of 2,760 offenders committed to the custody of the Florida Department of Corrections during fiscal year 1985.Although they found no greater sentence severity for poor offenders found guilty of property crimes, they found that poor offenders did receive longer sentences for violent crimes, such as manslaughter, and for morals offenses, such as narcotics possession. Nor, by the way, did sentencing guidelines reduce this disparity. 58 A study of indiv iduals convicted of drunk driving found that increased education (taken as an indicator of higher occupational status) â€Å"increase [d] the rate of movement from case hung to probation and decrease[d] the rate of movement to prison. And though when probation was given, more educated offenders got longer probation, they also got shorter prison sentences, if sentenced to prison at all. 59 SENTENCING On June 28, 1990, the House Subcommittee on Financial Institutions Supervision, Regulation and Insurance met in the Rayburn House Office Building to hold hearings on the prosecution of savings and loan criminals. The chairman of the subcommittee, Congressman Frank Annunzio, called the meeting to order and said: The American people are furious with the slow pace of prosecutions involving savings and loan criminals.These crooks are responsible for 1/3, 1/2, or maybe even more, of the savings and loan cost. The American taxpayer will be forced to pay $500 billion or more over the next 40 y ears, largely because of these crooks. For many Americans, this bill will not be paid until their grandchildren are old enough to retire. We are here to get an answer to one question: â€Å"When are the S&L crooks going to jail? The answer from the administration seems to be: â€Å"probably never. † Frankly, I don’t think the administration has the interest in pursuing Gucci-clad white-collar criminals.These are hard and complicated cases, and the defendants often were rich, successful prominent members of their upper-class communities. It is far easier putting away a sneaker-clad high school dropout who tries to The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 9 Chiricos and Bales found that, for individuals guilty of similar offenses and with similar prior records, unemployed defendants were more likely to be incarcerated while awaiting trial, and for longer periods, than employed defendants.They were more than twice as likely as their employed counterparts to be incarce rated upon a finding of guilt. And defendants with public defenders experienced longer periods of jail time than those who could afford private attorneys. 60 McCarthy noted a similar link between unemployment and greater likelihood of incarceration. 61 In his study of 28,315 felony defendants in Tennessee, Virginia, and Kentucky, Champion also found that offenders who could afford private counsel had a greater likelihood of probation, and received shorter sentences when incarceration was imposed. 2 A study of the effects of implementing Minnesota’s determinate sentencing program shows that socio-economic bias is â€Å"more subtle, but no less real† than before the new program. 63 Tillman and Pontell examined the sentences received by individuals convicted of Medicaid provider fraud in California. Because such offenders normally have no prior arrests and are charged with grand theft, their sentences were compared with the sentences of other offenders convicted of grand theft and who also had no prior records. While 37. 7 percent of the Medicaid defrauders were sentenced to some jail or prison time, 79. percent of the others convicted of grand theft were sentenced to jail or prison. This was so even though the median dollar loss due to the Medicaid frauds was $13,000, more than ten times the median loss due to the other grand thefts ($1,149). Tillman and Pontell point out that most of the Medicaid defrauders were health professionals, while most of the others convicted of grand theft had low-level jobs or were unemployed. They conclude that â€Å"differences in the sentences imposed on the two samples are indeed the result of the different social statuses of their members. 64 As usual, data on racial discrimination in sentencing tell the same story of the treatment of those who cannot afford the going price of justice. A study of offender processing in New York State counties found that, for offenders with the same arrest charge and the same prior criminal records, minorities were incarcerated more often than comparably situated whites. 65 A study of sentencing in Miami concludes that when case-related attributes do not clearly point to a given sentence, sentencing disparities are more likely to be based on race. 6 Most striking perhaps is that, in 1993, 51 percent of inmates in state and federal prisons were black and 44 percent of inmates of jails were black, whereas blacks make up only 36. 5 percent of those arrested for serious (FBI Index) crimes. 67 Furthermore, when we look only at federal prisons, where there is reason to believe that racial and economic discrimination is less prevalent than in state institutions, we find that in 1986, nonwhite inmates were sentenced, on average, 33 more months for burglary than white inmates and 22 more months for income tax evasion.In 1989, the average federal sentence for blacks found guilty of violent offenses was 10 months longer than for whites. 68 Here must be mentioned the not orious â€Å"100-to1† disparity between sentences for possession of cocaine in powder form (popular in the affluent suburbs) and in crack form (popular in poor inner-city neighborhoods). Federal laws require a mandatory five-year sentence for crimes involving 500 grams of powder cocaine or 5 grams of crack cocaine.This yields a sentence for first-time offenders (with no aggravating factors, such as possession of a weapon) that is higher than the sentence for kidnapping, and only slightly lower than the sentence for attempted murder! 69 About 90 percent of those convicted of Federal crack offenses are black, about 4 percent are white. â€Å"As a result, the average prison sentence served by Black federal prisoners is 40 percent longer than the average sentence for Whites. 70 In 1995, the United States Sentencing Commission recommended ending the 100-to-1 disparity between powder and crack penalties, and, in an unusual display of bipartisanship, both the Republican Congress an d the Democratic President rejected their recommendation. 71 Sentencing disparities between the races are, of course, not new. An extensive study by the Boston Globe of 4,500 cases of armed robbery, aggravated assault, and rape found that â€Å"blacks convicted in the superior courts of Massachusetts receive harsher penalties than whites for the same crimes. 72 The authors of a study of almost 1,200 males sentenced to prison for armed robbery in a southeastern state found that â€Å"in 1977 whites incarcerated for armed robbery had a greater than average chance of receiving the least severe sentence, while nonwhites had a greater than average chance of receiving a moderately severe sentence. †73 A study of 229 adjudicated cases in a Florida judicial district yielded the finding that â€Å"whites have an 18 percent greater chance in the predicted probability of receiving probation than blacks when all other things are 10 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison qual. â₠¬ 74 A recent study of criminal justice systems in California, Michigan, and Texas by Petersilia confirms the continuation of this trend. â€Å"Controlling for the factors most likely to influence sentencing and parole decisions,† she writes, â€Å"the analysis still found that blacks and Hispanics are less likely to be given probation, more likely to receive prison sentences, more likely to receive longer sentences, and more likely to serve a greater portion of their original time. †75 Myers found that â€Å"harsher treatment of persons with fewer resources (e. g. female, unemployed, unmarried, black is †¦ pronounced in highly unequal counties. †76 The federal government has introduced sentencing guidelines and minimum mandatory sentences that might be expected to eliminate discrimination, and many states have followed suit. The effect of this, however, has been not to eliminate discretion but to transfer it from those who sentence to those who decide wha t to charge—that is, from judges to prosecutors. Prosecutors can charge in a way that makes it likely that the offender will get less than the mandatory minimum sentence. Says U. S. District Judge J.Lawrence Irving of San Diego, â€Å"the system is run by the U. S. attorneys. When they decide how to indict, they fix the sentence. †77 We have seen in this [selection] †¦ that the criminal justice system is triply biased against the poor. First, there is the economic class bias among harmful acts as to which get labeled crimes and which are treated as regulatory matters †¦Second, there is economic class bias among crimes that we have already seen in this [selection]. The crimes that poor people are likely to commit carry harsher sentences than the â€Å"crimes in suites† committed by well-to-do-people.Third, among defendants convicted of the same crimes, the poor receive less probation and more years of confinement than well-off defendants, assuring us on ce again that the vast majority of those put behind bars are from the lowest social and economic classes in the nation. On either side of the law, the rich get richer†¦ Monday, September 13, when corrections officers and state troopers stormed the prison and killed 29 inmates and 10 hostages. 78 During those four days the nation saw the faces of its captives on television—the hard black faces of young men who had grown up on the streets of Harlem and other urban ghettos.Theirs were the faces of crime in America. The television viewers who saw them were not surprised. Here were faces of dangerous men who should be locked up. Nor were people outraged when the state launched its murderous attack on the prison, killing many more inmates and guards than did the prisoners themselves. Maybe they were shocked—but not outraged. Neither were they outraged when two grand juries refused to indict any of the attackers, nor when the mastermind of the attack, New York Gov. Nelso n Rockefeller, was named to be vice president of the United States three years after the uprising and massacre. 9 They were not outraged because the faces they saw on the TV screens fit and confirmed their beliefs about who is a deadly threat to American society and a deadly threat must be met with deadly force. How did those men get to Attica? How did Americans get their beliefs about who is a dangerous person? These questions are interwoven. People get their notions about who is a criminal at least in part from the occasional television or newspaper picture of who is inside our prisons. The individuals they see there have been put in prison because people believe ertain kinds of individuals are dangerous and should be locked up. I have argued in this [selection] that this is not a simple process of selecting the dangerous and the criminal from among the peace-loving and the lawabiding. It is also a process of weeding out the wealthy at every stage, so that the final picture a picture like that that appeared on the TV screen on September 9, 1971—is not a true reflection of the real dangers in our society but a distorted image, the kind reflected in a carnival mirror.It is not my view that the inmates in Attica were innocent of the crimes that sent them there. I assume they and just about all the individuals in prisons in America are probably guilty of the crime for which they were sentenced and maybe more. My point is that people who are equally or more dangerous, equally or more criminal, are not there; that the criminal justice system works systematically not to punish and confine the dangerous and the criminal but to punish and confine the poor who are dangerous and criminal. †¦ AND THE POOR GET PRISON At 9:05 A. M. n the morning of Thursday, September 9, 1971, a group of inmates forced their way through a gate at the center of the prison, fatally injured a guard named William Quinn, and took 50 hostages. The Attica uprising had begun. I t lasted four clays, until 9:43 AM. on the morning of The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 11 It is successful at all levels. In 1973, there were 204,211 individuals in state and federal prisons, or 96 prisoners for every 100,000 individuals (of all ages) in the general population. By 1979, state and federal inmates numbered 301,470, or 133 per 100,000 Americans.By 1995, there were a total of 1,585,401 persons in state and federal prisons and in local jails, a staggering 600 for every 100,000 in the population. One in 167 U. S. residents (of all ages and both sexes) was behind bars by the end of 1995. However, of the 1,585,401 prisoners, more than a million are men, virtually all above the age of 18. Because the adult male population in the United States is about 93 million, this means that more than one out of every 100 American adult men is behind bars. 80 This enormous number of prisoners is, of course, predominantly from the bottom of society.Of the estimated 711,643 peop le in state prisons in June 1991, 33 percent were not employed at all (full or part time) prior to their arrests. About half of these were looking for work and half were not. Another 12 percent had only parttime jobs before prison, making fully 45 percent who were without full-time employment prior to arrest. These statistics represent a general worsening compared with 1986, when 31 percent of state inmates had no pre-arrest employment at all, and 43 percent had no full-time pre-arrest employment.Of those 1991 state inmates who had been free at least a year before arrest, 19 percent had some pre-arrest annual income but less than $3,000 50 percent had some pre-arrest annual income but less than $10,000. 81 To get an idea of what part of society is in prison, we should compare these figures with comparable figures for the general population. Because 95 percent of state inmates are male, we can look at employment and income figures for males in the general society in 1990.Statistics o n employment and income for 1990 are close to those for 1988 and 1989, and so will give us a fair sense of the general population from which the current state inmates came. In 1990, 5. 6 percent of males, 16-years-old and above, in the labor force were unemployed and looking for work. This corresponds to half the state inmates who were unemployed before arrest, because the other half who were unemployed were not looking for work. Where 16 percent of state prisoners had been unemployed and still looking for work, only 5. 6 percent of males in the general population were in this condition.Thus, prisoners were unemployed and looking for work at a rate three times that of males in the general population. But this doesn’t give us the full picture, because it doesn’t capture the unemployed prisoners who had not been seeking work. To capture that, let us assume that, as among the prisoners, the number of males in the general population who are unemployed and not looking is eq ual to the number in the labor force who are unemployed and looking. (Note that this assumption is high, but for present purposes conservative, as the higher it is the more it will decrease the relative difference between prisoners and general male population. The 5. 6 percent of males in the labor force represents approximately 3,799,000 persons. If we double it, we get 7,598,000 as an estimate of the total number of males in the general population who are unemployed, looking for work or not. As a percentage of the total noninstitutionalized population of males 16 and over, this is 8. 5 percent. Compare this with the 33 percent of state inmates who were unemployed prior to being arrested. Then, state prisoners were unemployed at a rate nearly four times that of males in the general population. 2 Where 19 percent of prisoners with any prearrest income at all earned less than $3,000 a year, 6. 8 percent of males in the civilian labor force in 1990 earned between $1 and $2,499 a year, and 12. 3 percent earned between $1 and $4,999. Fifty percent of the inmates had annual incomes between $1 and $10,000, while 25 percent of males in the general population earned in that range. 83 Our prisoners are not a cross-section of America. They are considerably poorer and considerably less likely to be employed than the rest of Americans.Moreover, they are also less educated, which is to say less in possession of the means to improve their sorry situations. Of all U. S. prison inmates, 47 percent did not graduate from high school, compared to 21 percent of the U. S. adult population. Sixteen percent of prisoners said they had some college, compared to 43 percent of the U. S. adult population. 84 The criminal justice system is sometimes thought of as a kind of sieve in which the innocent are progressively sifted out from the guilty, who end up behind bars. I have tried to show that the sieve works another way as well.It sifts the affluent out from the poor, so it is not merel y the guilty who end up behind bars, but the guilty poor. 12 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison Endnotes 1. Compare the statement, written more than half a century ago, by Professor Edwin H. Sutherland, one of the major luminaries of twentieth-century criminology: First, the administrative processes are more favorable to person in economic comfort than to those in poverty, so that if two person on different economic levels are equally guilty of the same offense, the one on the lower level is more likely to be arrested, convicted, and committed to an institution.Second, the laws are written, administered, and implemented primarily with reference to the types of crimes committed by people of lower economic levels. [E. H. Sutherland, Principles of Criminology (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1939), p. 179]. 2. For example, in 1991, when black made up 12 percent of the national population, they accounted for 46 percent of the U. S. state prison population. BJS, Survey of State Prison Inmates. 1991, p. 3. 3. Edwin H. Sutherland and Donald R. Cressey, Criminology, 9th ed. (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1974), p. 133.The following studies are cited in support of this point (p. 133, note 4): Edwin M. Lemert and Judy Rosenberg, â€Å"The Administration of Justice to Minority Groups in Los Angeles County,† University of California Publications in Culture and Society 2, no. 1 (1948), pp. 1–28; Thorsten Sellin, â€Å"Race Prejudice in the Administrations of Justice,† American Journal of Sociology 41 (September 1935), pp. 212– 217; Sidney Alexrad, â€Å"Negro and White Male Institutionalized Delinquents,† American Journal of Sociology 57 (May 1952), pp. 569–74; Marvin F. Wolfgang, Arlene Kelly, and Hans C.Nolde, â€Å"Comparisons of the Executed and the Commuted Among Admissions to Death Row,† Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 53 (September 1962), pp. 301–11; Nathan Goldman, The Differential Sele ction of Juvenile Offenders for Court Appearance (New York National Council on Crime and Delinquency, 1963); Irving Piliavin ad Scott Briar, â€Å"Police Encounters with Juveniles,† American Journal of Sociology 70 (September 1964), pp. 206–14, Robert M. Terry, â€Å"The Screening of Juvenile Offenders,† Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science 58 (June 1967), pp. 73–81. See also Ramsey Clark, Crime in America (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1970), p. 51; â€Å"Negroes are arrested more frequently and on less evidence than whites and are more often victims of mass or sweep arrests†; and Donald Taft, Criminology, 3d ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1956), p. 134: Negroes are more likely to be suspected of crime than are whites. They are also more likely to be arrested. If the perpetrator of a crime is known to be a Negro the police may arrest all Negroes who were near the scene— a procedure they would rarely dare to follow with whites .After arrest Negroes are less likely to secure bail, and so are more liable to be counted in jail statistics. They are more liable than whites to be indicted and less likely to have their case nol prossed or otherwise dismissed. If tried, Negroes are more likely to be convicted. If convicted they are less likely to be given probation. For this reason they are more likely to be included in the count of prisoners. Negroes are also more likely than whites to be kept in prison for the full terms of their commitments and correspondingly less like to be paroled. 4. StatAbst-1996, p. 8, Table no. 49. See also Karen Pennar, â€Å"The Rich are Richer—and America May Be the Poorer,† Business Week, November 18,1991, pp. 85–88. 5. StatAbs-1994, p. 482, Table no. 742. See also Carole Shammas, â€Å"A New look at LongTerm Trends in Wealth Inequality in the United States,† American Historical Review 98, no. 2 (April 1993), p. 422. 6. StatAbst-1996, p. 48, Table no. 49; and p. 398, Table no. 623. 7. Michael Tonry, â€Å"Racial Politics, Racial Disparities, and the War on Crime,† Crime & Delinquency 40, no. 4 (October 1994), pp. 483, 485–86. 8. Sourcebook-1981, p. 463. 9. StatAbst-1988, p. 75, Table no. 304. 10. BJS, Profile of Inmates in the United States and in England and Wales, 1991 (October 1994, NCJ-145863), p. 13. 11. Theodore Chiricos and William Bales, â€Å"Unemployment, and Punishment: An Empirical Assessment,† Criminology 29, no. 4 (1991), p. 718. The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 13 12. An offender’s socioeconomic status †¦ did not impact sentence length for any of the property offenses. † Stewart J. D’Alession and Lisa Stolzenberg, â€Å"Socioeconomic Status and the Sentencing of the Traditional Offender,† Journal of Criminal Justice 21 (1993), p. 73.The same study did find lower economic status offenders received harsher sentences for violent and moral order crimes. Anoth er study that finds no greater likelihood of incarceration based on socioeconomic status is Michael Benson and Esteban Walker, â€Å"Sentencing the White-Collar Offender,† American Sociological Review 53 (April 1988), pp 291–302. And yet another found higher-status offenders to be more likely 10 be incarcerated. David Weisburd, Elin Waring, and Stanton Wheeler, â€Å"Class, Status, and the Punishment of White Collar Criminals,† Law and Social Inquiry 16 (1990), pp. 23–41. These last two studies are limited to offenders convicted of whitecollar crimes, and so they deal with a sample that has already been subject to whatever discrimination exists in the arrest, charging, and conviction of white-collar offenders. 13. Isidore Silver, â€Å"Introduction† to the Avon edition of The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (New York: Avon, 1968), p. 31. 14. This is the conclusion of Austin L. Porterfield, Youth in Trouble (Fort Worth: Leo Potishman Foundation , 1946); Fred J. Murphy, M. Shirley, and H. L.Witmer, â€Å"The Incidence of Hidden Delinquency,† American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 16 (October 1946), pp. 686–96; James F. Short Jr. , â€Å"A Report on the Incidence of Criminal Behavior, Arrests, and Convictions in Selected Groups,† Proceedings of the Pacific Sociological Society, 1954, pp. 110–18, published as vol. 22, no. 2 of Research Studies of the State College of Washington (Pullman: State College of Washington, 1954); F. Ivan Nye, James F. Short Jr. , and Virgil J. Olson, â€Å"Socioeconomic Status and Delinquent Behavior,† American Journal of Sociology 63 (January 1958), pp. 381–89; Maynard L.Erickson and Lamar T. Empey, â€Å"Class Position, Peers and Delinquency,† Sociology and Social Research 49 (April 1965), pp. 268–82; William J. Chambliss and Richard H. Nagasawa, â€Å"On the Validity of Official Statistics; A Comparative Study of White, Black, and Japanese Hig h-School Boys,† Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 6 (January 1969), pp. 71–77; Eugene Doleschal, â€Å"Hidden Crime,† Crime and Delinquency Literature 2, no. 5 (October 1970), pp. 546–72; Nanci Koser Wilson, Risk Ratios in Juvenile Delinquency (Ann Arbor, Mich. : University Microfilms, 1972); and Maynard L.Erikson, â€Å"Group Violations, Socioeconomic Status, and Official Delinquency,† Social Forces 52, no. 1 (September 1973), p. 41–52. 15. Charles R. Tittle and Robert F Meier, â€Å"Specifying the SES/Delinquency Relationship,† Criminology 28, no. 2 (1990), p. 292. 16. Gary F. Jensen and Kevin Thompson, â€Å"What’s Class Got to Do with It? A Further Examination of Power-Control Theory,† American Journal of Sociology 95, no. 4 (January 1990) p. 1021. 17. This is the conclusion of Martin Gold, ‘Undetected Delinquent Behavior,† Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 3, no. 1 (1966), pp. 7†“46; and of Sutherland and Cressey, Criminology, pp. 137, 220. 18. Cf. Larry Karacki and Jackson Toby, â€Å"The Uncommitted Adolescent: Candidate for Gang Socialization,† Sociological Inquiry 32 (1962), pp. 203–15; William R. Arnold, â€Å"Continuities in Research—Scaling Delinquent Behavior,† Social Problems 13, no. 1 (1965), pp. 59–66; Harwin L. Voss, â€Å"Socioeconomic Status and Reported Delinquent Behavior,† Social Problems, 13, no. 3 (1966), pp. 314–24; LaMar Empey and Maynard L. Erikson, â€Å"Hidden Delinquency and Social Status,† Social Forces 44, no. 4 (1966), pp. 546–54; Fred J.Shanley, â€Å"Middle-class Delinquency As a Social Problem,† Sociology and Social Research 51 (1967), pp. 185–98; Jay R. Williams and Martin Gold, â€Å"From Delinquent Behavior to Official Delinquency,† Social Problems 20, no. 2 (1972), pp. 209–29. 19. Empey and Erikson â€Å"Hidden Delinquency and Soc ial Status,† pp 549, 551. Nye, Short, and Olson also found destruction of property to be committed most frequently by upperclass boys and girls, â€Å"Socioeconomic Status and Delinquent Behavior,† p. 385. 20. Williams and Gold, â€Å"From Delinquent Behavior to Official Delinquency,† Social Problems 20, no. 2 (1972), pp. 209–29. 4 The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison 21. Gold â€Å"Undetected Delinquent Behavior,† p. 37. 22. Ibid. , p. 44. 23. Comparing socioeconomic status categories ‘scant evidence is found that would support the contention that group delinquency is more characteristic of the lower-status levels than other socioeconomic status levels. In fact, only arrests seem to be more characteristic of the low-status category than the other categories. † Erikson, â€Å"Group Violations, Socioeconomic Status and Official Delinquency,† p. 15. 24. Gold â€Å"Undetected Delinquent Behavior,† p 28 (emphasis added). 25. Ibid. , p. 38 26. Terence P.Thornberry, â€Å"Rac